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THE UNIVERSITY 0? CHI<3A60 ^'' ' 



THE HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY AS A SUBJECT IN THE CURRICULUM 
OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL FROM 1776 TO 1860 



A DISSERTATION 

Submitted to the l^aculty 

of the Graduate School of Arts and Literature 

In Candidacy for the Degree of 

Master of Arts 

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 



By 

WILLARD PRESSLY BOYLE 

CHICAGO 
JUNE 
19 2 1 



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OUTLIKE 

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 

PART I, THE INTRODUCTION OF THE SUBJECT lilTO THE CURRICULUM. 

CHAPTER II, EARLY BEGINNINGS 

1, In England 

2, In the Colonies 

3, In the United States previous to 1820 

a. Examples of the movement in North Carolina 

and Virginia 
h« Purpose of the American Academy of Arts 

and Sciences 

c. In Phillips Andover Academy, 

d. In the schools of Dedham, Massachusetts 

e. In various schools in New York State 

f. In Connecticut and Rhode Island. 
Connecticut Lawof 1799, 

g. Required for entrance to Harvard, 1814 
h. Taught in Boston schools, 1817 

i. In private schools of St, Louis 
j. Development in North Carolina after 1800 
CHAPTER III. THE PERIOD FROF 1820 TO 1860 

1, The westward movement 

a. Effect upon geography in schools 

2, Growth of foreign trade and its effect 

3, In Massachusetts 

a. Law of 1827 

b. In Boston schools in 1834 
0, Law of 1839 



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4, In Connecticut 

a. Law of 1841 
T3« In Horwich 

c. In Hartford and East Bridgeport 

5. In Rhode Island 

a. In Providence 

b. In the academies 
0. Law of 1845 

6, In Kew York State 

a. In primary schools of New York City, 1832 
t. Textbooks used in Hew York, 1833 
o. Laws of 1841 and 1847 

d. Examination in geography required of 
teachers, 

7. Opposition to subject in Rhode Island, 
Connecticut, and Massachusetts 

8, The subject in Virginia schools 

a. In the early academies 

b. Legalized by statute, 1846 

c. riequired by statute, 1849 

9. In north Carolina 

a. Proposed legislation 

b. School act did not require geography 
10. In Ohio 

a. Private schools of Akron 

b. Taught in Cincinnati 1840 

c. In schools of smaller cities 
d» Educational legislation 



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-3- 

11, In Missouri 

a. Act of 1835 

12, In Illinois 

a. Provided for in Alton "by statute, 1837 

"b. Not required in Illinois as a state 

c. Teachers to be examined in geography, 1849 

13, In Wisconsin 

a. Taught at Green Bay, 1828 

"bt District trustees to determine course of 

study, 1838 
0. Required hy str^tute, 1849 

14, Claims made for geography at various times 

a« Special and general functions mentioned by 
Woodbridge 

b. Value as mental discipline 

c. Summer's claim 

PART II, TEXTBOOKS .WD METHODS O? INSTRUCTION 
CHAPTER IV. EARLY TEXTBOOKS 

1, Gordon's Geograpgiy Anstorai zed 

2, The first American textbook 

a. Contents 

b. Characteristics of early books 

3, Other textbooks 

a. Dwight 

b. Parish 

c, Willets, Atlas introduced 

d, Morse and I'orse 



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4, Suinmary of contents of books "before 1824 

a. Table showing principal subjects treated 

5, Some later books 

a, Worcester; new topics 

b, Goodrich; illustrations 

c, Olney 

d, Smiley 

e, Mitchell; maps in textbook 

f, Woodbridge; better methods 

g, Smith; gre-?ter detail 

h. Cornell; thin, flat volume 
1, Van Jaters; rhymes 

6, Topics included under descriptive geography 

a. Method of analysis and tabulation 

b. Changes in type of topics discussed and 
reasons for change 

7, Other textbooks in use 

CHAPTER V. Iffl-^HODS MD DEVICES USED IK TEACHING GEOGRi\PHY, 
1776-1860. 

1, Phillips' divisions of the period up to the 
present 

a. Difficulty of dividing into definite 
periods 

2, Geographies probably used as reading books 
before 1800 

3, Both re ding and memorizing about 1820,Fowle 



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4, Memorizing inoreasing in popularity, 

a. Willets* method 

b. Devices suggested "by florae and Morse 

c. CummingPi on memorizing 

5, Keriorizing in connection with map study 

a. Ideas of texthook^ writers 
"b, ITovrle introduces map drawing 

c. More modern methodfj of v»'oodbridge and 
others 

d. Outline maps and tlieir use 

6, Memorizing still important, 1845 

a. Report of Boston school visitors 
h. Similar reports from New York state 

7, Later period of memorisation continuous with 
that of early part of century 

8, Improvement in met'iod 

a. Better apparatus 

"b. Change in metliod advocated, 1826 

c. Begin ntudy with home, Shattuclc 

d. Other advocatea of same method 

e. Fowle introduces motivation 

9, Foreign influence 

a. American writers influenceal by Pestalozzi 

and Ritter 
"b. Stowe's Report 

c. Mannas Seventh Report 

d. Peatalozzian methods not all improved 

e. The influence of fruvot 



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CHAPTER VI. CONCLUSION 

1, Status in 1860 

a, Sumnary of legislation 

"b. Reason for increaoed demand 

(1) the later westward movement 

(2) coi.'imercial expansion 

(3) economic and social changes 
e. Stmmiary of texfbook changes 

d. The changes in method 



-7- 
GHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 

In our colonial schools reading and writing seem to 
have been universally tau^ht^ Spelling was also taught in 
most schools. The Bihle was used as a reader, and such 
emphasis was placed upon moral and religious aims of educa- 
tion as to indicate that the more practical aims were ac- 
corded little consideration. Such subjects as English grammar, 
geography, and history are mentioned only occasionally in 
discussions of the curriauliim of the colonial schools, in 
the boys' schools reading, writing, and spelling were often 

taught during the d-^y, w?dle arithmetic was left to be 

2 

studlSd in the evening, Geogr-^-phy v^as usu?lly taught in 

connection with mathematics and astronomy. At the close of 
the Revolutionary V/ar arithmetic had not yet won an entirely 
undisputed place in the curriculum, and geography, English 
grammar, and history were facing a long, determined struggle 
for the places 7/hi oh tliey now hold in the curriculum of the 
elementary school. 

It is the purpoao of this thesis to trace the hi story 
of the subject of geography throu^jh the period in which it 
won for itself the place whicli it now occupies. The early 
history of the subject in the English and colonial schools 
will be merely touched iipon by 'vay of furnishing a background 



1. ITerri wether: Our Col. Currie . pp. 25-40. 

2. Ibid, p. 160 

3. Ibid, p. 141. 



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for the novement which "began shortly after the Revolutionary 
War, For the period previous to 1800 we have little in- 
disputahle evidence, but after that d^te the evidence is 
sufficient to enahle one to trsce in considerahle detail 
the gradual gain made by the subject until it was firmly 
established as a part of the elementary school curriculum. 
It was not possible in a thesis of as limited ocope as 
this to trace this development in the schools of all the 
atatea, instead, a limited number of states representing 
New England, the Middle Atlantic States, the fJoijth Atlantic 
States, and the North Central States were chosen. Of course 
the West was omitted because of the fact that geography 
was well established in the curriculuin before the state?? 
of that section had organized school systems. The states 
included in the list are Maaaachusetta, Rhode Island, 
Connecticut, New York, Virginia, ITorth Carolina, Ohio, 
Illinois, Wisconsin, and T'iasouri, It is felt by the writer 
that these stfitea are representative of the country at large, 
New England mey appear to have nore than her share of 
representation, but the N ew England States were leaders 
in educational affairs and were among the first to include 
geography in the elementary school curriculum, A fair 
account of the introduction of the subject into our schools 
must therefore include an account of what took place in 
those states. 



The actual introiuction of the subject into the 
ourriculiun has been treated in two periods, that preceding 
1820, and that extending from 1820 to 1060. The first of 
these two periods was one of gradual gain, but the necond 
period included a wave of fenthuaiasn in favor of the new 
subject which finally resulted in its being required in the 
schools of some ststes and being included in the list of 
3\ibject3 in which prospective teachers were to be examined 
in a number of others, 

"Pollowing the discussion of the introduction of the 
subject to the curriculijmi there is a.n analysis of the early 
geography textbooks, 3ixteeji books have been included in the 
list of those examined, beginning with Jedidiah I.'orse'a 
Geography i:ade Kaay , the tenth edition of whicli was published 
in 1806, The choice of tlie books to be included in ths tables 
was determined by the popularity and use of the books as 
shown by articles in educational journals, advertisements ' 
and reviews in the same journals, and lists of books in use 
in various nttrtea as reported by pttate superintendents of 
public iii-3truo!:ion. The availability of the books was also 
a determining factor, 

1^'inally the methods and devices used in teaching 
geography during the period have been discussed. The eir.phaiis 
has been placed on the manner of presentation of the material, 
but the content and the influencea back of the change in 
content have been discussed insofar aa they affect the manner 
of presentation. In a nhort concluding chapter the wtiter 



-10- 

haa endeavored to aet forth the ststus of the sutject 

in 1860 and to sum up the influences which finally resulted 

in its inclusion in the elementary school curriculi;iin. 



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PART I 

THE IlTTOODTJCflON Oj? ffSOGRAPHY IlITO THPI CURRICULUTf 01? '^HS 

EIJiUffiNTARY SCHOOL 



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CHAPTSR II: EARLY ESGIimiNGG 

Although geogvHohy waa taught in r fe^v Tllngliah 
private schoola 'before 1549 we have no positive i^now- 

ledge that the subject was "systematicslly taught in any 

2 
English schoola until the eighteenth century^. There 

is little douht that it wao incidentally taught long be- 
fore that ti)i;e, ?l-'.ere were a number of books dealing with 
the gubjects of cosmography, geography, hydrography, navi- 
gation, riapa, and globes published previous to 1660. iTot 
a great deal of geography was taught in i\jnericR previous 
to the Revolutionaiy War although America was in large 
measure the cause of the increased interest in the subject 
in England. Some geof^taphy was taught as mathematics 
and as astronomy, and there are many textbooks in American 
libraries which were used during that period. These text- 
books were all published in England, since at that time 
the first American geography had not been written. Consider- 
able ingenuity was shoim in devising orreries, planetariuma, 
and other instruments used in teaching astronomy, navigation, 
geogr-^'phy, and related subjects, but there is some doubt 
as to the regularity with which these instruments were used 
after they had been placed in the laboratories. 



1. Watson: T he Berin. o f the Teach, o f l'o,l., 3ub. in Eng .p.l05. 

2. Ibi i, p. 105 

3. Ibi 5, pp. 115-118. 

4. TJeriwether: pp. 140-145. 

5. Ibid. 



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An examination of the prof^rpns of some of the 
schools in the middle of the eighteenth century gives one 
a clearer conception of just what was included in geography 
at that time. We find It merely a minor part of a corn- 
"bi nation pf auhjects degir;ned for the special benefit of the 
seafaring mEn. According to advertisement g in nev/apapers 
of that period "the use of the globes" was taught in the 
Kent County School at Chesterton, T'aryland as early as 1745, 
In 1776 Peter Hobinson taught "cosmography, celestial or 
astronomical, and terrestrial or geographical" and also 
"the description and use of sea charts, maps, quadrants, 
forestpffs, nocturnal protractor, scales, Coggershall»^8 

rule, sector, gauging rod, universal ring dial, globes, and 

2 

other mathematic.l instruments" at Tjpper Karlboro, J'aryland, 

These two illustrations serve to show what was meant 
"by geography at that time. Sometimes it was mentioned specif- 
ically under the name geography , and at such times it meant 
the use of globes, mathematical geography, and place 
geography. The trader, the sailor, the merchant needed to 
know some geography, as did also the scientist, but it was 
of little value to the average person in the American Colonies 
"before the Revolutionary Vfer, ^or that reason we find that it 
was usually taught in a school of a more or less specialized 



1, nteiner: Hi at. Of. :?A. In I'a, p. 33. 
3, Ibid. 



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type, a school designed to prepare boys to become sailors 
or occasionally in some private school where the sons of the 
wealthy traders and raerchants of the coast towns received 
their education. 

Smith quotes an advertisement from the ITorth Carolina 
Gazette of July 24, 1778 as follows: 

♦•Mr. Joseph Blyth has opened school in the public school- 
house, and rrill teach Latin, English, arithmetic, geography, 
geonetry, trigonometry, and several other of the most useful 
branches of the rnathenatics, according to the best and raost 
approved methods. Gentlemen and ladies who favor him with 
their children may depend that he will be diligent and pay 
proper attention to their education, 

Uewbern, July 24" 

Considerable interest was sliown in education in most 
of the st':te3 dizring the last two decades cf the eighteenth 
century. As early aa 1779 a coinmittee, one of whose members 
wag '^omac Jefferson, reported to the assenbly of Virginia 
a plan for a Bystem of partially stste-supported schools. 
Each county was to be divided into districts or hundreds for 
the establishment of schools in which reading, writing, and 
arithmetic were to be tauftht, fhere were also to be more 

advanced schools, twenty in each county, and geography was 

2 

one of the Rubjectg to be included in the curriculum, ' Although 

1, Smith, TTist. of Ed, in IS.C , p, 42, 

2, Worrison: Bep-Jn, of Tub. ?.d. in Va. pp, 17-18. 



-15- 

nothing was done to carry out the recoimnendations of this 
committee, the very fact that the subject of geography was 
one of those recommended shows that it was receiTing serious 
consideration and was probably becoming fairly common in the 
more advanced private schools. 

The act incorporating the American Academy of Arts 
and Sciences, passed by the Massachusetts legislature during 
dtt-8 session of 1779-1780, names among other objects of the 
society the encouragement of "astronomical, rieterologicai, 
and geographical observations". The act was passed I'ay 4, 
1780, In October of the same year Phillips Andover Academy 

was incorporated, and again geography was named as one of 

2 

the subjects to be taught. The subject was introduced into 

the schoo la of Dedhem, I-assachusettb "soon after Jedidiah 
Morse published a work on that subject in 1784", The Minutes 
of the Trustees of llewburg, Hew York are quoted by T^uttenber 
to show that in 1790 it was "Agreed that the Reverend George 
H, Hperin shall be entitled to receive the whole of the rents 
and benefits arising from the Gl&be lands, while he continues 
to officiate as minister, and teaching the cliildren of the 
inhabitants of the German patent on the following terms, viz, : 
Reading, '.vriting. Arithmetic, Geography, History and iinglish 

Grammar at 12 S, per quarter, Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic 

4 
at 8 shillings per quarter," It is not clear whether this 



1, The Acts and Resolves of the Pro vince o f the I 'a ss. lay, 1769- 
1780 , pp. 1194-1196. Vol.'V, Oh, 46, 3eo, 7. 

2, Ibid, p. 1418. Gh. 15, Year 1760. 

3, olafter: '""he School s ;?_nd •^e acher ? of D e dhaBT ,r'a_3_s .pp. 170-171. 

4, Ruttenber: Hist, of the Town of I'ew'b'ur'gh,p. 245, 



-16- 

school waa an academy or an elementary achool, ON March 4, 
1801 Pererend Seth Hart advertised that he "was disposed to 
take 6 or 8 boys to board and lo Ige in hi 3 family and be in- 
structed in reading, writing, arit?imetic, geography, Enf^lish 
grammar and the Latin and Greek languages." The law of 
1795 in Hew York St^ite appropriates the sum of twenty thousand 
pounds annually for a period of five years for aiaintaining 
schools in which "the children of the inliabitanta residing in 
this state shall "be instructed in the iingiisli language or be 
taught English grarmiar, arithmetic, raetheiaatics and such other 
branches of knowled/^e ao are most useful and necessary to com- 
plete a good English education; -----•«■' This law is 
typical of many of the early laws relating to education. It 
names certain subjects which are to be taught and leaves 
those in charge of individual systems or schools to decide what 
other subjects, if any others, are to be included in the 
curriculuK., 

Connecticut and Rhode Island also have representatives 
among the schools teaching geography before IBOO, The 
regulations for the schools in Tarmington, Connecticut, adopt- 
ed April 4, 1796 state that the object of the schools ia 
"to perfect the youth admitted therein in reading and in the 
grammar of the English tongue, and to instruct them in geography, 



1, ?itzpatriclc: The ]t!iuc;;t ion al Vie-rs and Influence of De'/itt 
ClintQn],r pp. 11-12, 

2. laws o ^ the iU-^te of rerr York, 1789-1796, p. 626. 



-17- 

1 
arithmetio, composition, and speaking, or any of them." 

Stockwell quotes from an interview with Mr. John TTowland in 
1847 in which Ho. viand, an energetic and progressive member of 
the Providence Aaaociation of ?'^e chanics and Manuf acturers , 
tells of the influence of that association in the agitation for 
the establishment of free schools in Frovi deuce. 

"The introduction of grainir.ar was quite an advance in the 
system of education, as it was not taught at all except in 
thP hetter class of private schcols. The same was true of 
geography, which had never been taught before. Geographies 
could riot be boiifrht in this town, so I sent to Boston ana pur- 
chased as many as were wanted for our schools. Dr. irorse of 
Charleston had published the first vol.ime of his geography, 
and that was the work we adopted, iAany thought it an un- 
necessary study, and in private objected to it because it 

would trike their attention from arithmetic. But it net ivith 

2 
no pubiich opposition,'* Aocordint? to J'r, Howland the events 

mentioned took place in 180C, 

The st^te of Connecticut in 17'j9 took a very definite 

step toward t>n2 recognition of geof^raphy as a part of the 

curriculum of "schools of a higher order". These sch.ools 

probably correuponded to our upper grades. The law passed 

in ray, 1799, is entitled An Act for appointing, regulating, 

and en couraging schools. It provides by a vote of two thirds 



-'•• Conn. R eT:)Q rt of t he Guot. o.f .Conr). Sch. , X8.'35, Vol. 8, p. 113, 
2, Stockwell: A ITict, of Publ. 3d. in K.I. ,1636-1876. pp. 150-155. 



-18- 

of the inhalDitants of « acViOol society present in a legal 
meeting for the entablishinent of "schools of a higher order, 
for the oononon benefit of the 3oci ety, the object of which 
shall be to perfect the Youth admitted therein in Reading 
and Penmfinahip, to instruct them in the rudiments of finpilish 
graronar, Conpo^ition, Arithmetic and Geography, or, on particu- 
5.ar defjire in the Latin and CreeV: lanpuares; .?l3P in thf first 
principler3 of P.elifcion and morality, and in general to form 
them for uaefulne^g in society." 

Woah Webster, in an account of the United States in 
1806, anys of the acadenies and grammar schools of Connecticut: 

•»In these are taught not only the prinarv branches of 
Reaming, but geography, gr-unrcar, the languages, and higher 
beanches of raathenatics, "2 

Fron IBOO <-o 1820 geography slowly but 'i'urely -von for 
itself a place in the courses of ?tudy of raany schools. In . 
1814 Harvard announced that after 1815 geography would be 
required fcr entrance. This re^Miirement no doubt had a 
stimulating effect wpon the novenent to include geography 
among the subjects studied ir the better class of preparatory 
schools, but we Rve not 3ure that it had any marlced effect 
upon the curriculum in any great nur^.ber of schools of any sort. 
It is interesting to note, >^o^.7eTer, that in the report of 
e subcomnittee appointed in 1817 for considering the ad- 
Tisability of establishing schools for children under seven 



i- Act. -I :iitd Lawa of the 'Itateof CQjjn. ,_179G-18Q2, pp. 502-006. 
2. ^^a-^na'^d: Schools as they "?e re "LTixty Yfti-irs ago. In Barnard' s 

ADer. Jour, o"" Id., Vol. 26, 1876, p. 202. 
7,. T'pVf.Vn' >'Vip "i-'vnT . o-f the Ta s s . Put. 3ch. Hysterj. p. 127. 



-19- 

yeara, there ia a 3tr;tement that "In the pu1)lic Schools 
in this town (Boston), the clilliiren are tau^^ht the principles 
cf the Snsliah lanpua^^e, and likewise the elements of 
,7ritir.g, Arithraetic, and Geography. •' It is probahle that 
geography was? taught in Boston "before tliis tii-e, hut this is 
the first reference we have to the bub.iect actually being 
tauf'iht in the Boston town schools. 

During this aaxue period p;eography was taupht in a 
number of pi-ivate schools in St, Louis, 3charf quotes an 
adrertiaemfent from the l^igs q uri gaz ette of January 11, 1809 

to 'ihoir that a lir. schewe aivertised that he would teach 

2 
geography, as well as otlier subjects, at that tine. . On 

Hovewber 16, 1809 Isaac Septliveres advertised that he would 

3 

teach drawing, geography, matneinatics, and French gramriar. 

In the year 1816 Timothy nUint and James Sawyer "associated 
for the mirpoHe of continuin,^ to teach the first principles 
of education upon the Lancagtri.?n eyatem, and the higher 
branches, as gramiaar, geography, with the use of naps and 
globes, cpriiponition, rhetoiic, the Latin and Greek languages, 
mathemetics and philosophy.""* 

The aubject had gained a fcotbold in the acadetiies 
of Korth- Caroliiia alao et the beginning of the nineteenth 
century. As early as 1806 it -.vas included in the course of 



1 , Wi gh trtian : Atin. of th e Boston Pria. r > ch. Con . ,1818-1655, p. 25. 

2, Hcherf ;Tj^t.ojf^ sT; jJ)uTF end County,' p. 624. 

3, Ibid. 

4, Ibid, p. 22b. 



-2C- 



study of the Bo er ding S cht ool for yem ale Education at osl ei". 
North Carolina, and fin editorial in the RaleJKh B tar of 

March 15, 1810 lists geoerHnl'iy as one of the suhj ects taur;ht 

2 

in tho En{?:li!3h departiyiont of lialeigh Academy at that d^te. 

We know thtit the firsjt of theae two schools was not in reality 
a necondury school, "because £-irls were admitted at the agea 
of eight and twelve years and vrere iiot allowed to reneir after 
they were fifteen," As early as 1803 a man neroed 0' barrel 
had introduced a bill in the lc;i:islature providing for the 
ef?tRbli3hrnent of an -acadewy in each county in the state. The 
hill Iticl-uded a statement as to what should "be taU'-^ht in theae 
aoadenie^, and geography wsa included in the lint. The hill tail- 
ed to pfj.gs.'* Ag'iin in 1917 the r.spoi*t of a comriattee appoint- 
ed for the consideration of the governor's ^cesaa^^e on education 
outlined a pl.-?.n for the establishj?ient of free schools in the 
8t''te. Readimr, wa'itiru:, and aritlwietic were to be tau.rht 
in zhe primary schools, and geography was included in the 
coursse of study of the acaderriiei. This proposal was referred 
to a Goinreittee and finally ir.oorpor.^ted i>ito a bill w'^ich 
failed to pass, 

Althou:->^ none of these proposals were made law they 
show a decided tendency to include geography in the academy 
curriculum. It ^lust bfi renemtered th^t nany of the?!e academies 



1» Raper: The C hurch pn' l priv;vt-.e ■3o}toolr, of I'ortTi C£.rolina,p ,89, 

2, Goon: The Befrin. of Ih-'b_j_ j^.<i._l_n K. C. , Vol. 'l, p. 76. 

3. Raper: p. P'9'.~ 

4, Coon: v, 46, 

5. Ibid, p. 139. 



which p.re niRnticned were not 9c>iools of a particularly ad- 
vanced type. The suhject tf.ught usually included Latin and 
Boroetirr.ea Greek, "but the other antjects were the name as 
hQve been taujrht in the aixth, seventh and eighth gr^.des aince 
the ffiidille of the last contury. Sorae wore certainly genuine 
secondary schools, hut /uore were i.ot far enough advanced to 
"be so rfinlced. 



-22- 

CJLAPTER III: TIIE PERIOD FROM 1820 TO 1860 

Beginning with the second decado of the ninetdenth 
century there 'vas launched a laovexnent which was probably more 
influential th.-in any other one thing in finally placing geog- 
raphy nnong the otudiea puraued in practically every element- 
ary Bchool in the United States J do jiot refer to any great 
educp.tionfil reform but merely to the movement of settlers 
into the Went, Of course there vrere nany settlements in the 
West before 1810, and the r.ovement had been froinii on for 
many ye-vrs, but the i. umber of pernono orouainR the Alleo;heny 
Mountain-^ into the v.^lleyo of the Oiio and other western rivers 
in any one year before 1B12 was relative J^' insignificant as 
cninpare 1 with the numbers who poured iuto the west during 
the nucceeding ye^^rs. The folloving quotation illustrates the 
magnitude of this movement: 

"The growth of the 't7est, to which we have already re* 
ferred, was phenomenal in the early AeoeAe:^ of the centiiry. 
There had long been av interrnittent citream of Dicration over 
the mountains fron the see-coast ritrtea, '.lihenever tines were 
bad or the oce?3n f^omnerce tss serioiir.ly intei^f erred with, 
many turned tlieir fHces wentward ^nd '30U(Tht new hones, expect- 
ing to bep-ir lif** over again in the irilderness. Between 1810 
and 1816 the population of Ohio increased frorr two hunired 
snd thirty thousf^nfi to about four hundred thousand. In the 
same period the number of people in Indiana leaped fror. 



-23- 

twenty-four thousand to nearly three tlrjea that number. The 
Southern sea-coaat States poured their citizens iiito Illiuoia 
and the territories of the Southwest. 

After 1816 the tide of migration tc the West hecawie 
a mighty current. *\7e nre', aaid Calhoun at that tine, 'greatly 
and rapi^ily, - I was ahout to s^y fearfully growirip', Steam- 
boats plied up and down the western riyerr: and travelers 
thronged the roadn to the interior." 

Tl-iia great movement had eti effe(5t upon the curriculum 
of the Ar.ierican schools rsirdlRr to that exerted hy the period 
of exploration and settlement upon that of the English schools. 
There was an increased demand for geogr'^.phy. People wished 
to know rore about tViis ne;v region to •■ffhir.h their friends 
and relatives were going. Trade across the mountains increased 
in volume, and the demand for more icnowledf^e of the region 
with which this tr^ide was being carried on was a naturf^i one. 
There was no great leader w>io w?>«s particularly influential in 
the moTeriont to include f^eogr^phy in the curriculum of the 
elementary schools. '^he demand simply grew 'dth the country. 
It was a demand for a greater knowledfre of the newly settled 
parts of thi3 r:'pidly p:rovriy\(r^ country, 

Dixring this same period j'imerican trade -nth foreif^n 
countries was increasing rapidly. Our increasing Importance 
as a commercial nation was another factor in the introduction 



1. McLaughlin: viot. of the Aaer. V.ni, pp. 253-265, 



of geography into the curriculUTn, The exchariRe of .f^ooig 
with foreign peoplea naturally resulted in exchrinf^e of 
idefia as well. There frrew up a denand to know more of the 
pro duct a which other people had for exchRnfce and rxlso of the 
habits aud custoiaa of the varioua nationalities, of their 
government, and of their manner of living. 

Of course the;5e demands had tegun to hear fruit be- 
fore 1830, but t>)ft deraand seems to have increp.aed much r,''Ore 
rapidly from that tirae forward, if we can judge by the results, 
A contenporary account in 1834 rives us the courne of studies 
in the frrarnmar schools of Boston at that time. It is as 
follows: 

•♦Clasa IV, 3pellinfr, "Reeding, CIsbr III, Spelling 
and Heading, coutinued. P}np:lirih C-raiiinar, Glaeo II, Spelling, 
Reading, and lingliah ('rratn;;ar , continued, (reopiraphy, Perning, 
Class I, Spell infr, f^eadine;, GrPirPiSir , and C-eoPirapV^y, continued. 
History of the United Stater. , Coppooition, Declamation." 

The writer of tlie article then T^roceeds to enumerate 
the conditiora under which arithmetic and other studies are 
tauRht, We see that geogr&phy was tsu/^ht in the two highest 
grades of the elementary school. JOven before that tiTie, as 
early as 1827 there was a law in IZassachusetts requiring each 
town or di .strict in the state contnining fifty fanilie;^ or 
householders to "provide itself -^ith a teacher or teachers 



1, \7oodb3*idg8: Boston Public 3chools. In Amer. .-jin, of ad. and 
Instruct. Vol. 4,, 1.?.'4, o. boii. 



-^5- 

of good raorala, to instruct cyilldren in orthography, reading, 
writing, "Bn^^lis^i grammar, geography, aritlimetic, ,"nd good 
■behavior, for such tern of ti>ae aB ahfill he equivalent to 

a term of aix montha for orie pichool ii\ each year: " 

This law was approved hy the. governor on Mercli 10, 1C27, it 
§Uy9 nothing ahout schools in digtricte or towns of leas 
than flftr fawilii^.s; no we carrot yet say that geography 
wan required in the cichools of Ma8Bfiuh\i9ett3, Ho;vever, ell 
uncertainty was removed twelve ye-'T'i l?ter. In 1839 another 
lew dealing with the nnhject of sduc-tion was passed, and 
part of the first section of this law reads tiP. follows: 

"In every town in th.ig Com onwealth, there shall be 
kept, in each year, at the charf^e of the to^T. , by a te=icher 
or teachers of competent ability, and t;ood ji'oraln, one 
school for the instructicm of children in ort^ogsaphy, reading, 
writing, English pran-iar, geogr^^phy, arithmetic, and good 
behavior, for the term of six mon^hJi, or t\TO or ir.ore schools 

for terns of time which shall top:ether be sqiivRl3nt to six 

2 
months; , " 

Although thi^3 law does not specify, as did the law 

of 18-17, that t-ier» is to be a school in districts in which 

there is no town, there seerns tj be no uncertainty whatever 

as to ^.yhat is to be tau-^^ht in tfie schools, and geography had 

undoubtedly won it -3 place in the school <=» of '^Massachusetts in 

1839. 



•^» Law s of the ConrRonivealth _ Qf I'a es. .T nn.5»?'i ?r uhl0,i837 , Gh. 

GXLIIIC, Sec. I, 
2 • Acts a nd Regolv es Pa ssed y/ t he Legislature of ?:a3s.,1839, 

Ch. 26, oec. I, 



-26- 

Many states heaitated to prescribe the studies which 
should "be teught in the 3C>iool3. Awong rmc}i 3tatea are 
Connecticut, Rhode I aland, and Kew York, v/e have already 
seen that the state of Connecticut had prescrihed certain 
studies to "be tpjAfiht in "ochools of e highv^r order", l»itt 
thR lEws of later yearn make no refcxf-rice to the require- 
ments eTcent in the case of certification of teachers. An 
POt passed in 1841 provides that the toard of visitors 
shall prescrilDe the studies in the sc^oola, but it also pro- 
vide? that this f5nTae board "Shall t}ii^mnelvef3, or by a com- 
nit-^ee ny there appointed for t^iri purpose, exarine all 
candidates as teachern in the coiciion school of nuch f.ociety, 
and shall /t^ive to those persons -.rith whose moral character, 
lit'^rary attaiiininta, and ability to teach they are satis- 
fied, a certificate setting; forth the "branches he or she 
is "^ound capable of teaching: Provided that no certificate 
shall be given to any per.-on not found viuaiified to teach 
reading, writinf!;, arithmetio and grarnar thoroughly, and 
the rudiments of geography and l-istory." This requirement 
is a foir indication that the subject was usually taaght 
in the oor^.on schools of Connecticut, i'.ention has already 
been made of its havinfr been tair-^ht in "^ermington, Connecticut 
before IBsOO, Caulkins also st-teo that geography was taw?:lit 
in "an institution of hif^her grade than elementary" at 



■^» J-":'-|b*, ^i\;Cta of _the_^ '^A'--"'"'^. , 9^ Conn. , May Session, 1841, p. 47, 



-27- 

Horwlch in 1783, An academy waa e3tablished in this aame 
town in 1782 and at p. somewhat Inter date, we are not told 
exactly when, Morse's Geogra phy T/ade Hasy was used as a text- 
book, Jedidiah T/orse is said to have "been an instructor in 
this academy at one time,^ A pamphlet issued in Connecticut 
in 1838 says that "Gcorr^phy ad. grr^raaar have M'ithin a few 

years "been introduced extensively, ----.•• y/e know that 

4 
^eof^rnphy was taii^ht in Hartford in 1856 and in East pridge- 

port'^ during the years 181)9 and 1660, amce tlte ruleis and 
regulations of the sc'iools in t?ieBe toi'*7is for tlie years 
mentioned prescribe it. Phy?3icai geograi)hy was taupht during 
the last year of the ^;rnmmar school ir jiaot Bridgeport, and 
the subject was tauf!:?;t i)i 3orie forra in the three preceding 
years of the gramar school and in the last year of tlie 
primary scl-iool. Physical geography was tauf;ht in the high 
school in Harfford, 

Conditions in P.hode Island were aiiollar to thotie in 
Connecticut. In 1B20 in Providence a cociroittee on rules 
and reprulations reque:^ted the schoolMoahers for sugf,'er.tions 
as to FiethodB of conducting and i irprovirg tV;e schools. The 
results at that time show that emphasis wan placed or read- 
ing, writing, arit^-'n.etic and spellin, ,. C-eography was dropped 



1, Caullrins; Hist, of ITorwloh. Conn, p. b41. 

2, Ibii. p. 542. 

3, 'jiTiJ.ll: liic.iriy Hew "'-in,':'. Sch. p. 372. 

4, Conn. Re-o ' t of t he? 3 apt, of Com. Scho ol 13b6-lB67 , pp. 120- 

5, 'Cljid, 1859-^aGSO, pp. i06"-103. 



-28- 

froTTi the course of atudy in 1820 but was restored in 1822. 
In the Providence "writing school a", the grade of schooln 
higher than the primary, v/oodhridge ' 3 Small Geogr.'jphy was 
used in 1828, Some geography was also taught during the 
first year in the "i!i/arren Ladies' Seminary Bt Warren, Rhode 
Island in 1834,' and in the English department of Kij;g3ton 
Academy at South Kingston in ±«54,'''' 

"he lefjislntion delaing with educf?.ti.^n in R^o Je Island 
was similar to that In Connecticut, In 1645 a hill was 
P9.ssed proTiding that neither of the authorities with power 
to FJign tssichere' certificates (the cliairmaTi of the school 
comrnit-'-.eQ of irny to^^n or the inspector for the county) "shall 
sign s.ny certificnte of qualification unless the person mmed 
in the n'^me s'-'ell T^rocluce ex''ider.ce of good ohp.rpcter, and 
"be found on examination, or by experisrice, qualified to teach 
the English I'-jntisuage, arithmstic, perucanahlp, and the 
rudir.entr3 of -Teography and history, ;ind to govern a 3c?iOol."5 
Here we ncrnxn have evidence that tlic subject had established 
iteelf in the course of stuly tut that the teachers were not 
expected to Icnow a great deal about it. 

In 1B7-2 a l^few York City school oorir.jittee seems to 
have visited Boston for the purpo;^e of studying their prinary 



1. Carroll: P ub. Jli. in H.J- , "JJP. Gfj-ofj* 

2. Ibid, P. 67. 

3. "olTi-jn: 'Tis_t. of| ^Tl.-'hor ICd. in ~.I. .PP. 84-5. 

4. Ibid, p."<>=0. *" 

^« '^iLil'^® '^gl-'">nc^ .AcVb,. Hos olves and Rep orts, 1845-4G, (June 3ess, 
i645T~Act T^elating to Put. 3ch. Sec". XX, Par. 2." 



-29- 



aoViool syatem. The New York syotem was finally modelled 
after that in Boston \vith some changes. "The course of 
study enhraced reRdinp, spellin^r, and writinr., with the 
oltRple elements of arithmetic and geoRraphy, to be tnuf^ht 
orally and aa far as possible, with visible iliustrationa 
by merxna of a map of the herniapheretj, nuneral frame, and 
blROkboard," '^hc city had been late in eatabiiahinj; a 
ay stem of ,>uhlio schools and for that reason date is difficult 
to obtain. 

The Kew York i5t;?te Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
tion reported that in 1833 /oodbridge'o, Wiilets', oieny'a, 
J^Torae's, Cupping's, Goodrich's, Hart » a, Dwipht's, Dillard's, 
Clark's, Peter Pnrley's, 3paf ford's, Worcester' a, and 

Hilli?ird'a geographies' were in use in different schoolB in 

3 

thfi etrrte. The years iramediately followint; show liota 

which increase steadily in length fron year to yecr and 
in which nome of the books natied ere grnduaiiydiaplaced by 
others. In 1834 Buperirtendent ^lagr saya that "the stu'iy of 
arithmetic and geogr-iphy may not, perhaps, be carried farther 
than is necessary." He apparently was unwilli»jg to place 
therae t>?o subjects on a par with the othem, and yet later 
in the BaiT<e report he recomnendrs "a thorou^:h kno\viedge of the 
geof^rnphy of the State of Kew York, and of the United otstea. 



1. Boese: Pub. Ed. in the City of !:.Y., pp. 69-60. 

2. Ibid, p. 60. 

3. IJ'laRr: li._V._-^^"'- ^-.^P*^ •"^^^^^' °"^ *^^"^' ^°^' 163:5, pp. 68-73. 

4. Ibid, 1834, p.~ 20, 



-30- 

and 30 much of the geography of the earth as treats of its 
generr-i riiviaiona, of their climates, aoils, and productions, 
and 3uch eieirentary statistics as are usually engrafted upon 
geogrfiphical works." 

T'he laws of 1341 and of 184? provi de the rae^na of se- 
curing the neceosary revenue through the lajring of i\ tix or 
the use of the library fund under certain specified connitions 
for the pu.rch&se of globes, maps, ^.^IsckhoRrdG, and o-!,her 
school '.ppnratua. ' Th.ua it can be seen th?t it. w^n ^vlthin 
the rmwRT of any diJtrict to secure the neceaeary apprr'-Jtua 
f(^r teaohirg Geography. The school law of 1847 si so contained 
e certi f.i. er.-'.-.i j.n r'^quirement majcin?, it the duty of each town 
superi ntcrdent ''to ascertain th.e ojuai.lficat.Lons of th3 candi- 
date, ir respect to moral characters, le^rnir;;:;, and nhllj.ty." 
The law did not -specify how the tomi auperi ntendon*; sho'ud 
asoertsir. the qaHliJicvtiona of can.;! late.?. .In .I3f^l n^rauel 
S. Rand.?ll, at that tiras Deputy Super.-intendent of C-' ro- 
Schools, :,)u"bii'5hed a airiall book called "'he Comrro;':' .^.chool Systeo; 
of the Btnte of T.aw Yori :. Ammjx other thing's Randnii o^^^-lined 
thf? appoific requireraents which were to he roet heforG ^. oauiii- 
d.-;te could he isirvaed a certificate. Tlie oanf^idate vr-^n rr^qviired 
to he a rood speller, a -iistinct anu Hocurate rei^der, -'•o "be 



1, Ihi 1, v). ?i. 

2. La^a of til's Gtate of IT.Y. 1841, p. ;.».?8, Ch. 260, 3e<:.:_a. 
.aso"l847, Vol. I.'pT'B, Ch, ;T, neo. 1. 

•■'«• Lp.wb of t he nt?.te ofJT.Y. 1B4_7 , p. 6BV>, (Ih. 4L3C, Art. 4, 
Sec. :^5, ' 



-31- 

able to write a ^ood and plain h-^nd and to make pens, and to 
"be TTell versed in the definitions of rvorda, in arithmetic, 
ipsital and irritten, in geography, in the hiatorv of the 
United 3taten, in English ferairiniar, and in the use of globes. 

This is the third of the states to ps33 legislation 
reiuirin? an exarciration in ge ogr-vphy fo- ? teacher's 
certific^ite although the subject itself ?'ao not required in 
the schools "by law, Neither was sny other sutject required 
}:<y law, TiOY'ever, and wo are juBtified In sfiying that by 
1040 peog-raphy Tae t&ufjht in rnoct of the schools of vassa- 
chnsetts, Rhode Ifsland, Connecticut, and i!ew Yorlr, 

The rnovemfcnt to include geofjraphy in the curriculum 
of the Plexr;entavy school was not vithc-ut oppostion .during 
the first threes or foijr decades of the century. The 'f.e-n 
Englanders were inclined to "be coriservative then as tViey are 
now, and on nuraeroufj occasicnH determined opposition 
threatened to force the subject ir-to the "btcicRround, llie 
statement hsn elreadjr been uade that in 1020 geography was 
'dropped from the course of stud}'- in Pi-sridence only to be re- 
turned again ir. 1B22, Sr.iall says, of oorditions in Connecticut, 

"And 30 lote as 1820, at (llastenburg, Connectiout, 
there was a unanimous vote of the lio'ird of Vi:"iitor?. 'that the 
several instructor-; of the diitriot ac'ioolo iu t 'li ".=; society 
be directed to instruct the children in their re-sp^ctive schools 



1. Randall: '^he Com, Sch. '3y:-5. of the 3tateof K.Y., p. 157. 



-sp- 
in the rudiments of literature, religion, morals and manners; 
particularly in a knowledfre of spelling, reading and writing, 
and they are directed not to instruct the children in arithmetic, 
grammar nnd geography during the regular school hours* , And 
inT>2B a pamphlet issued in Connecticut states: 'Spelling, 
yeaiin;?, writing and arlthrnetic sfe taught in nearly eyery 
school. Geography and prammar have within p few yat-.Ts "been 
introduced vp.ry extensively, l/ut in many placea not without 
gre^t opposition. ISfren arithrnetic until within s. few years 
\TOS e^ccluded fron many nchoola during the day, and only per- 
mitted to ho taup-ht in thd evening achools, GrEmmar and 
geography were opposed but with legs vioierce • . ""^ 

Wightman quotes froir the report of a aubcorrimittee 
appointed in 1333 to ij-jvestig-^te charges tliat gor.-je of tlie 
schools had departed froTi the prescriTsed course of instruction: 

"In 3chool 1:0. 8 Peter Parley's Geofjraphy, -fith ■''aps 
and a frlohe, had "been introduced; also geometrical cards and 
wodels of various fifi^ures. The geography was used as an 
occasional readinf' book "by the chillr^n; and the other things 
were also used hy the teacher. In three other schools more 
or less of the Bv.vre things had be^^n introduced. It appeared 
furt'-ier, that, all of them had been riven to the schools, 
though, in gorae canes, the parents had "been requested to pur- 
chase the geography for the children," 



1, Small; .'^larly Hew Tilng. SOioola, p. 37 -2, 

2, '.7ightnan: \nn. of the Eoston Prim. 3ch. Com., pn.irS8-139. 



Such quot-^tiona give one a rather clear conception 
of the strength of the opposition to the introduction of 
any new ouhjeot into the curriculum. It is safe to aay t)iat 
oonditiona were much as they are tod.^y. There was a growing 
demand for a fuller, richer curriculum, hut there was also 
a very decided, though decreasing, opposition to anything 
new and untried. 

The Kioveraent to iiicludc geography in the eienontary 
school curriculum in the 3outh and West is ro further hehind 
the movement in the j)^ eiv England States and Hew York than 
conditions would lead one to expect. The economic and social 
conditions ^srere different in these two regions frorii the condi- 
tions existing in the nortyi-eaatern states. The simple fact 
that the Sout:^ was to a great extent a region cf slave lahor 
and of aristocratic land ov>r.ers '-dth large plantations re- 
tarded the develor^ment of a free schiooi system. There was 
a caste eysteta v/hich practically deinanded ttiat the wealthy 
plantation owner's son be educated in a school apart from 
that in which the poor roan's son receiTed his education. The 
first state-aided schools established in the South were charity 
achools to which & child could he sent in case the parent 
was unahie to pay for 'nis education. It is natui-ai to 
suppose that such suhjeots as geography, history, and grammar 
found a plcice in the better class of private scJiools at a 
conipar.r-.ively eorly date hut that the extensionof tne curriculum 
lagf^ed in the primary ochoola provideci for the poor cliildren. 



Thl3 appears? to "be whab happened. 

The gubgcriptlon papers for Charleston Academy in 
Jefferson County, Virgiiiia had named geography as one of the 
guhjecta to ha taught in the school a3 early as 1795. 
Shepherds town Acadevay, in the aane oountv'', included "the use 
of glohea' in its cour=ie of -^t'ldy ii 1813.^ In 1824 T^eography 
wag included in the coarge^ of both Tlampden 3i dney College 
and in tr.e prRoarntory achool of the same oolles^e.*^ The sub- 
ject wae taurht in t;ie ■\rir)!?:inia Bp.ptist Seminary at the 

4 

openinp" of school in 18r>3, 

ITot until 1846 was even a partial public school i=!y3tem 
provided for by law in Virginia, On F.orch 5 of that year a 
law 'vas p*?gi?ed which not onl.7 provided for the c^tabli ahnent 
of p school in each district but aloo specified srertain sub- 
jects wViieh were to be taught in the schools, A portion of 
tViifl act is as follows: 

"Be it further enacted ?hat in each ii strict a ichool 
ahall be e^^tehl i shed in the manner here-in-after provided, 
in w>iinh shall be t>iorouc:hly taugint reading, vrritinf? and 
arithmetic, and (where it is practicable) .Hlnnli3h granmar, 
f^Roeraphy, history, (especiall;?' of the atnte cf Yirfrinia and 
of the TTnitsd States) and the elements of phy^icrl science, 
and such other hi^^her branches bp. the school conmisoionera 
3fnay direct," 



1. IJorriqon: Th e T?egi! i. of Pu b. Sd . in Va., p, 13S. 
3. Ibid, 

3. Ibid. p. 105. 

4. Ibid, p. 150. 

5. ActiB of th«-; Cen. Assem. of 'Ta. .1045-46, p. 35. Gh. 41, Sec. 5. 



-35- 

It should be noticed t>iat according to the provisiona 
of t]ie law of 1046 geography was riOt required but was to be 
taurht merely "where it iu practicable*' to do ao. TTowever, 
the gchool law vnB chfmged all^htiy aa published in the Code 
of 1849, and geography r/as included snong the aubjecto 
apeoified, as was also English gr m.-imx?? , 

"The aaid board ahall eBtablia}i e ychool ir. o^nh dis- 
trict, in which qV)-.,]! i-^h t.-^ufrht reading, writirr, arithmetic, 
English grPuTiinar, and KtoKraphy, aiid, ivhen it i'3 pr:jctisable, 
history, the elcicents of phy^icfi acionce and such other 
br-mche;-^ oT learning ar. the said board may r<iQuire." 

In north Cnrolir.p tho subject did not -fwe ao veil. 
It will be recalled that before 1S£0 there were several pro- 
posfils for organizing a public sc-'ool system but that none 
of the 3u,*rp;estion!3 i^erc ever iiicorporated into v. bill which 
finally became law. There wag a great decii of oppo&iition 
to teaching no re than the tradition;'.! three or four subjects 
in a t;;x-supported school as is a}ioi.vr. by thfc liitro luccj-on of 
a bill in 18:^8 by a Mr. Fcl-'arlan-i pro 9-i ding that "no com- 
niafrLon s^hall p.'.y for f.^rwardir-g the education of any person, 
further t>.an Reedinf.', Writing, EnglinJ* Craraiua- and Arithmetic''.^ 
The bill fsilcd of passage but it illustrf-.tefs the oppo^-dtion 
to the inclusion of such subjects as history cUid geography'- 
in the cour.se offv-.rei in any i^c^iool r^ceivint; eveii partial 



1' '^i.e /^>'ie of 7a. 1849, pp. '57 5-;S81, Oh. LAA:ai, 3ec. 11. 
8, Coon: The re^in,' of "pub. Ed . in IT.O . Vol. I, p. 425-426. 



-re- 
state support. The bill Thich wars finally passed did not 
specify what subjects sVoiird bs t^uf^iht in the achoolg. 
ITaither did it li^t f';eo,'^r;^phy as r» nub.ieot in ^rhich a teacher 
must be examined. 

Of the 3tate?i 'Vhlch were orijrirv^Hy p. part of the 
?:Tr2rth've3t Teirritoiy Ohio wars th'^ flrf^t to be 3ettled and 
was ?.lao ri leader in thp. i "Tnrnvf>mert of her 3chool3, Advertiai- 
m(=)nt3 of private schools in A\:ron in the ysar? 1836 to 18S8, 

Inclusive, f=;hDw geography to hevo "been tawrht in several 

o 

of thera,*' The Ci n cl n nr. t i ^ <Llrta na c for 1840 esRv-;, 

"TJJvery pr.rent in t' Is city hc?.s it ir Vi--; power -vithout 
any iirect expenne to him^'elf, to rivs hi;? children a thorough 
edticatioti in Peadlnf:, 3pnllinr', Writln^:, TCn^jlish Gr-JiTrraar, 
Oeorr^iphy, TTi'^tory, Aqtroroir.y, ^o-ithvaetic, Including the 
higher branches of ^^stheinRtica, Tfatur il Philosophy and Polit- 
ics! Sconojny, corapri f^in;^ a complete instruction in all the 
brfpnohea nf?cei3";ary to the useful purpngeg of li^'e,"* 

The cour'?e of i^tudy of the secondary gchool3 seei?. to 
have been included; ar vie hsve no certain evi'lence tv^nt 
gepfcraphy w.?9 trufht in the elementary tchool?, but vre can 
be f-'irly oertp-in that it wars, sire in 185^ 're ^iun jt 
t^-?urht. iv the third, fourth^ fifth, Birth, seventh, ?.nd ninth 
years,'* The ninth year was used for a revi e'A' of previous work. 



1. Ibil, Vol.. TI, V, B86-B90. 

2, Lane, l<]i f ty "^eara^and Over of AJcron en d lu mriit County, pp. 
Il:i-il3. ■ " ■' ■ """- . 

3, The Cin. ..Al mana c. 1840, p. 55. 

4 . Twenty- To urtl:yin, Hep't of th e Truat eoa Rti.i Vi^Utorj of 
The Cum. Sch." of Gin., p. 67. 



-:s7- 

th« torrftf^trial globe t'Oing used nore than inapa, 

Olery's peorrraphy was used in the Bucyrua public 
fichoola in 1840,1 ^nd in 1841 n.&p urnwing was taught in the 
pijt:llc soVioola cf /'ortsrrouth, Ohio.^ nmith'B geography was 
used Ir the T.anearille schools in IBAc^ ?.nd Psrisy'a aiid 
IVTorsfc'a Keoarpphle'^ In ^Varreu in 3 649. Ar^p^rcntly th3 
?ub,ieot \7ns oommonly tau.-rht In the sc^'oola of OhiT fro,-c 1940 
to 1B50. 

Lst^ialafei'^n riiuirin^ !;ho iiitroduot.ion of geography, 
OT o:^ nny ;3uhj ect y^er than rejjOiug, i-ritii.g, rui.i aritbf.etic, 
into the curri. cioluin -sas not out into effect until almost the 
rpiddle of tVie century. The law af .183G had merely specified 

thnt rtTa'iTiK, >'ritiv;,", and nrity-,actic ahould be tau^^ht in the 

5 G 

English lanf^najre. The? lav: passed ev-?.riy in i«49, ainen.iing 

the act of IPoB, provided that whenever tliree or Tiore houae- 

holderg in p.ny district ii: the stfvte ghouid rnake known in 

T^itine- to fhf^ directors of the district thair desire that 

En^ligh gr.-?jrmip.r snd f^eogrsphy "be taup;ht in any sc]-ool of the 

disstrict, it should be the lut^; of the directcin to v-rovide for 

irgtructlon in thoae 3U>^ject;^, i;o law v^aa paased before 

1P,60 which nntie j!eo{^rnphy an absolute requirement, 

TJiaaouri wfts ;nie of the ^<rnvy first states in the country 

to require geograpT^y in the coKnr'ion achoola of the rotate, it 

wns in 1835 that the act oont;'.ining the follovrinf; provieiion 



1 , 8 , •' , 4 . Ti lt_._ JV^Il ''1]^' "^JiL. ^'^ 3 r' ib.">c}i. of th e IJtatu of Ohio, 

"(pages not nximberedr) 
^« ^^«^». :^nd Loo. Lawa of 0., IS-'^jO. Vol. XC-C/I, pp. 21-27. 
6, roid, 1P748-1G49, p. 4;5. 



-SB- 
was passed: 

"In all schools establiahed according.' to the pro- 
viainna of this act, there shall he taught, reading, writing, 
arithjTietic, geography, iSnglish grammar, and such other 
■branches of education (theology excepted) as the funds may 
Justify."^ 

Illinois, on the other hand, failed to psss any legis- 
lation requiring the inclusion of geography in the curriculum 
of the elementary schools of the state. ^Tovever, the act 
incorporating the city of Alton in 1037 enpowers the coTr,inon 
council of the oity "to eitahlish elenf>ntary or common schools, 

wherein reading, writin,^, arithraetic, geography, gr.-iin::;c;r and 

2 

other useful branches of lilnglish education may be ta.uK>it." 

On the ot>ier hand, as late as 1859, an act for the astablish- 
inent of a syatem cf graded scTiools in Gale.3burg ga/tj the board 
of education power to prescribe the studies to be taa.':-ht 
and the books to be used. AIhio in the case of tVie Lee Centre 

Union frraded School the director^^ ivere givenpower "to regulate 

4 

tiie course of studies to be pursued in said ins-'itutioM. " 

Illinois followed in the patVi of 3o,"e of the east<?rn states 
by including geography among the mbjGcte ir' which a candi- 
date for a position as teacher 'sras to be examined, '^he 
school law of 1849 contains a provision -.vhich required the 
school conmiasioners in each county to "exanine ail .o-.'T-ions 



!• T^ev. 3tat. ^t'-'-te of ^^o., 1835, p. 568. 

^* I'^-WS of the .;t"te of 111. >pec. 3es3 .1857, p. 22. 

3. Ibid, 1859, p. 164. 

4. Ibid, p. 170. 



-39- 

proposing to teach a common school in any township in his 
ounty, in relation to Viis or her moral character and touch- 
iri'^ his or her qualifications properly to te;ich ortV'ography, 
reading in iilngllah, penmenship , arithmotlc, llngiish gr-immar, 
modern geography, and the history of the United otates." 

In Wisconnin conditions were much the same as in the 
other states except that the introduction of {geography into 
the curriculiiin wag rather late, or, one night more properly 
say, the organization of a school sjystem itself did nor, occur 
at an early date. The following quotation hrings out this 
fact rather strikingly: 

"By 1828 many schools were heinit erjtahli 3hed, .^Li 

supported by private !5ub3cri ption an i tuition foes. Oreen Bay 

seems to have heen most progressive for at Shanty Town 

Fiss Russel and later T'iss Gears taught re-jdiric-, writi;:.', 

arithmetic, grammar and geography, the latter two studies 

"being looked upon as quite unusujl and certainly "beyond the 

2 
po-'.-er of rnof^t teachers to manage,""" 

The law of 1658 estallisfed a syctem of corimon sjchools, 
hut according to the provisions of this law the trustees 
of f»noh district were to deterrdrn- v:hrJ: subjects ^3]lOul^ be 
taug?it in the 5choo].« of the district. This provi-^i/n 

remained in force until 1849 when a new school law provided 
thpt 

"In every district nc>ool there sh^ 11 be taught 



1. Ibid, First Jess. 1849, n, 156. 

2. Pray: Jilariy IM. in Kd. ^^ist. of Yis. . p. 25. 

3. '3tat. o^ the Terr, of '/is., 18:5&-39," pp. 137-139. 



-40- 

orthogrnphy, reading, writing, English grHicmar, geography 
and aritlimetic, durinfr the time which such school shall be 
kept, and such other branches of education as shall he 
dcterrminffdl upon by the board. "■*• 

In 1854 the -wording of the section remained the same 

excopt that a provision had been inserted requirint*; thai-, the 

2 
teaching be done in the Enf^lisb language. 

In su^i'iiarizing the movement for the intro^iucti ' n of 
geography into the curriculum between the dates of 18pr) and 
1040 it nay be said that this was a period characterized 
more by a const r^nt gain in the popularity of the subject and 
by 1 gradual addition of geography to the courses of f>tudy 
of schools througViout the states considered than by legisla- 
tion requiring that it be tautiiht. It is true that sucli 
legislation was enacted in I.fisaouri and T'asiiachusettn in 
183i3 and 18:59, respectively, but such legislation was not 
char?:'.cteristic of the period from 1820 to 1040, I'he +'ollow- 
ing decade, however, is certainly '.«-ell represented by c luca- 
tionnl legislation which either named geography as :i p^rt 
of the courrje of stuii;^-- in the elementary schools or li^^ted 
it as one of the subjects in »vhich nrospective teachera 
were to be examined, Wisconsin and Virginia passed laws 
re-iuiring the teaching of geogra-o}iy in the elementary schools 
of those states, and Ohio passed a law which made the require- 



l-^- Rev. i;tat. of jtcte of .li>5 , . 164y, p. 195. 
2. ^-Offj Laws Sta-^e of /is.. 1854. Ch.80, 3ec. 41. 



-41- 

ment dependent upon the demand, Connecticut, Rhode Island, 
!!ew vork, and Illinois school laws required teachers to 
paas an examination in the subject, and llorth Carolina alone 
failed to make either of the requirements mentioned. 

This to^iy of legislation proves beyond a doubt that 
"by 1850 geogfaphy had won the approval of the people of the 
country as a whole for its ciain to a place in the curriculura 
of the ele'^entsry cchool. Ilo doubt there were still oections 
of the country where it had not won an undisputed place, but 
such places vvevQ not typical of the country as a whole, "hey 
were the backward sections which were tnakin^i slow pro^;ress 
in educational mattera of all sorts. 

In the early part of this chapter some attenticr^ was 
devoted to the influences which led to the rapid gro-^th 
of the novement to include geography in the curricuiun.. The 
tvfOt influences discussed \7ere the westward laovement an.i the 
r^rowth of foreign corninerce. At aifferent tiices during the 
poriod fror; 177C to 186C various claims were made for the 
subject of ceography. It is riifiicult to nieasurs the actual 
influence exerted by these variious cluirub, but it is urobable 
t>ipt eac>! of them was to aome degree iristrai/ientai in ^jic^cing 
the subject in the position it occupied at the end of the 
period. 

One of the no st enthurjiastic of the onar'pions of 
geof;raphy ua^ V.C. '-voodbridge, the author of one of trit? 



-42- 

most popular textbooks of the lecond quarter of the nine- 
teenth century. In a lecture before tl-ie Aroerican in3titut£ 
o_f Jn 'it rii£t i^)j2 in 1853 Mr. Woodbridfie mentions both special 
and >;eneral object 3 of the stu^iy. Among the forifier he 
mentions "the superior skill it gives to the sailor, the 
soldier, the missionary, and the traveler in their expeditions 
to vario'iia parts of the earth" and to the "merG)iant and 
politicians in their calculation of private oi national 
affairs". Among what he calls gener.;l objects }ie mentions 

1, Broadening of the mind. 

2, The elevation of the mind to God. 

3, Knowledge of the locati .n of places. 

4, Knowledfre as to ho-v to ir.terpret a jriap, 
Woodbridge lays special emphasis on the fourth of 

these fiinctions, and in thic he has anticipated a problem 
which ia still of outstanding importance in the teacliiufi of 
geography. He says that the child should begin with -'the 
observation of the objects in nature around him.-" Tie 
stresses the necessity o+' having eliildreii see in iwagii.ation 
•yhat the map represents, and as a method of aocoypii3hi<-.g 
this jmrpoae he advocates having the c'nildren construct maps 
from v>iat they see, beginning witli plans or luaps of a desk, 
room, playground, or nsighborliood.^ In introducing '7oodbridge's 
ideas on this subject at this particular point the wtter has 
in reality iutro iuced sonefhiug which properly belongs in a 



■^ • - '- tZ2.'-112.«- ~'^- ''^ "^ ouries and Lect, .Deiivered ijefore Am er , 

Ir.iti-' :, of" Instruct. ,1355, pp. 209-240. 
2. Ibid, p, 213. 



-43- 

later chapter, that dealing with the rethoda of teaching 
^eor.Tfivhy; TDut it aeemed proper to give it aojne attention 
Bt t^i<5 point in order to ahoiv .jujt what "oodhridge had in 
mind when he npolce of tlno ir)terpretation of tiiaps aa being 
one of t>ie objects of the study, lie aeema to hnve had a 
renarkably «lo?.r imif'-ht tnto this problem v^hen one cjii- 
Ftj. ders the rolrtive ne'Tneaa of the r,ubject in the curricui'.im 
at r--t tine. 

The second of the objects which he mentions is :.;.■ inter- 
estin,^ one, one ■^hich is typical of that peiiod rather t>ian 
o"^ the nore modern scientific period, A quotation fror.^ an- 
other article by 7oodbrid<:?e illustrates adr.iirably the ^'esitancy 
of the part of rriany geofjraphera of t]iat period to discusa 
ph^r-sical phenorcena without reference to rnliRious belief 3 
or theories: 

"But this study, like every other vjliich is concerned 
wi^h the r;orlrs of the Creator, ougit to be so jiurt-ued arj to 
elevate no rrell as exi^and the nind - to lift the heert to 
«od throuf'h the rnediurc of his worxs and K'i3 unceaoing provi- 
dence,- as well ag to 'h/nrir: it tcwai-do oar reilovvr>en. It 
inu'jt ever be rci:Gtabfired, that the noro kijowied^e .ve acquire 
of phy.Tical science, of mere viaihie tliings, without astu ciat- 
in'T f^v^.m '.rith the invisible author, the piore do re ueccir.e 
att^.oh'Jd to eartVi, and tht leut liVtlj to rite toward 1 e'ven. 
To this cnusG it is ;;nd not to the natui'fe of tlieir satucies, 
that v:e oucht to cccribe the frequent infidelity of natarc?lists; 
ana the teficher of geography should tpke care not to ler^I his 



-44- 

pupil into error," 

■Toodbridge nakes little effort to jusjtify Viis st.ite- 
ment* that geography broadens the mind, Neither does he 
devote particular attention to the location of places as 
an object of ■reography. This latter was probably no corimonly 
accepted as the most important aim ^t that ti./.ie that dis- 
cussion was deemed unnecessary. This particular aim '.7ill be 
■3iBcugsed riore fiilly in the cJiapter dealinfr with nethc 1.3, 
Ko list of cls-iins set forth of the values of a jjubject would 
seem oonplete without the clain that it afforded excellent 
mor.tal discipline; bo we present a quotation from c lecture 
by a f'r. Jomea G. Carter, T>il s lecture was delivered uefore 
T he /^er ica n Inst itute of Inatructior ii: August, 1G150, 

*'It affords, w'-en studied in the nanner i have ,ju'3t 
described, the best of (Jinnipline for several of the powers 
eariieit developed in t}ie infant siind. And, t erefore, t)iey 
should be enployed upon it, i He not vno-.v th?;t I chould 
go toe far, if I i^hould elay that,- if the vast ariOunt of 
gporraphical knowledge they will ^^Cvquirs, ?ferc entirely use- 
less in itsc-^lf, and if every fr-ct, doTcripti-jn and i:itt.j'est- 
Irn event learned, Tu'ere utterly obli terc hed froir rain :1, tv s 
mcne^'t t>iey close t^eir boo:<-,- I ■^ould never- the-iess put 
thorn upon the stuiy for the dincipline it uflords the '.aind 
alone, I know of no one elementary 3tU'3y within^ th»2 rjip;© 



1, oodbfidge: objects to toe Attained in Teaching Geof r: phy. 
In Aner. A.nnunl3 of I^d. 'ind In-jtruot. Vol, 4, 1334, p. 71. 



-45- 

of 3ubjeotr; adaptod to the oapacitlija of childron, which 
ciilitj into oxorciuo &o ro<iny of their faoultie:r, eni tnino 
them in uuoh an agraepblo Eianrjer, aa fi«sography, wlxen it ia 
properly iituiAeil,"'*' 

Ano«;hor Intereatine att«!.pt to Ju3tify th« iMsluaion 
of tiie fjubjejct in tJic oviyrioiiiiwa of tJiti aioukontary uclioox 
is MM Jo "isy A I;;r, nOiU'y ;3ut6iiit5r of liouth Caroiina in 1647, 
»;r, ''UKTs.^j: appisron»*y tttittJitpta to ja.itify thu aubj'Sct alpioat 
tj3tlreiy on th«^ gjround!? of ita latiirus **a plouaini^ and delight- 
ful tj-hutiy" aa 1.3 uhown by th»i roiiovyinij vju'*^"^ion; 

•H'.iJOiji-.iphy iu a plossaia«s tti^d dsxij^hirul study. To 
iuarn tho ai tuatiou of the difx'orent 'jountriea of the earth, 
tha loa-iti'y>-i of lurtjQ oiticw, the x'elRtivo position of the 
different .-i&tiojis alSih rcapect to each olhor, together with 
their ijt./Al,i»ti.-jt; ujkv rfacipcocal cobiEiercxal itii'la«nce, is 
int«reEit;in,5: ani ir/:»tructive. :vit'n thia branch ahouid be oun- 
niitcT;ed fi ijufficient ^taioale h^-u of aatroiiot!./, to enalle the 
pupil to knorf aofuethinj:, of the ponition that uur earth au3- 
tails s to the yoliir »vstoia, •*■ 

w« do r.ot doutt that th& outjtjot WciU iiitcroatiuu:; yet, 
aftfir iin>i..aideriii<i t"n«! iiiOthodu oiT teaoJunti one wiii. "bo i.j- 
ciined to wjuicr if it raally oou^d hav« beuu nuoro than 
aiir;].;t.iy no. 



1. Oartor; On th^s Dovolupwont of the Ijittflieotuai -^acultlea 
Jind On Teachiinj Uaogi-apiiy. In lairit duo. :) i nco '-^r :: c-..3 end 
Lcct. Beforti thv^> /^y^», in^^tlt. 61: iniitriot. ,^.lJi.K ,jjir.l>2-93. 



■4€' 



PART II 



TiiiXTBOOKS AliD ]^ETH0D3 01? H'oTRUGTlOK 



-48- 

CH.^PTITR IV 
EARLY TEXTBOOKS IK GEOGRAPHY 

One of the most popular of the EngliBh texthooks 
used in the schools of the American Coloniep and also to a 
conBiderable extent even after the Pevolutionary .Ves was that 
of Patrick Gordon. The twentieth edition of thin hook was 
published in London in 1754. It cor,t.?ij;ed frou>^hun;lre.d 
sixteen pages and twenty- two maps. All of the mtps v»ere fairly 
complete except that of North Americr. The r'lr.p of Forth 
Arcerico is very inaccurate, and the legior nort^ cf a 
line extending west fropi Lake ;iuperior and "ve'^t of ^udoon 
IBsy is rrarked "Parts Undiscovered". The source of the 
Ric Crande is shown in what is now eastern I'Dntana. 'Kie 
mspE are vmcolored and are on douhle-;u?.ed sheets v/hich 
fold back into the hook. 

The b'.;ok is divided into two prrt;^ the; fir;;t ooniist- 
ing of definitions of tern;s used ir physical and rathev.atical 
geography, geographical theorems, p;eog'raphlcal problems, 
and geographical parrdoxes; and the oeoor.d of the descriptive 
geoKi^'^phy of Europe, Asia, Africr. , and AnneriGa, Some of 
the probiams and paradoxes are interest! nj and also rather 
arnuaint?;. The foliowiufi problem is typical: 

"Prob. 11. To know by the niche when the Great logul 
of India, and the Enperor of Russia, sit do">n to dinner. 

This bein;; only to kntrw when it is Moon -'.t Jjelhi and 



-49- 

Peteraturg, those two Iiuperial :-3eat3, which we may easily 
do, at whatever time it may "be, or whatever place we be at: 
For findin/i^, by the foregoing Problem, the present hour of 
the day in the said Cities, and aupposing that IJoon is 
their Dimmer Time, we may readily determine how near it la 
to the time aeaired." 

The following illustrate the paradoxes: 
"Par. 5. There is a certain Place on the Globe, of 
a oorirjid:5r.:ible gout^ ej-n Latitude, that hatVi both the 
greater.t and least Degree of Longitude. 

P-ir. 6. There are thrae remarkable Places on the 

Globe, that differ both in Lonr;itude and Latitude, and 

o 
yet all lye under one and the saiae Meridian."*" 

The 33cond part of the booK contains much material 

of ;3uch a n^starfi as to siiow now xittle was known about 

foreign countrie:3 and foreign peojiles by the geographers 

of that porioJ. '"v/o quotations wiii iiuffice to prove that 

thr? rcc^ion we;^t oC the J,Ti ssi osippi was alKOst unVc!,o>vn. The 

firrjt of theso is a description of what is now Lower 

California, 

"'■'hiB 13 t>ie moot northern Land of Ainerica, wl-iich is 

in any Degree settled upon or poeaest by the Spr^niards, Tia 

a Sort cf Peninniila, exteniing frorr Latitude 37 North, and 



1, (rordor, : Ceogra-n hyAna to prized or '""he Geogrnpl ij cal r .-■i.trnar , 
-^Cth Jfid.: o, 17". ~ ■" 

2. Ibid, p. :^5. 



-50- 

teriTiinating with Cape Lucas at the Tropic, On the East 
it has tho Ca.Lifornian TrUlf, and on the "/est the Pacific 
Ocean. The chief Rivers are Camel, Color^ido, and AkuI; 
Mfhich lant called the Blue River faxl3 into the Bottom of 
the Oali^ornian lUlf, The Ilorth Part is iniiabited hy 
the Teguaiii i':^-!-: .u-i; and t)ie few tisittlementB jaade by the 
Spaniards art.- all to the South." 

The folicitving i '5 app.^rojitiy .-5 deaoription of tlie 
bison: 

"Karitiefi. ) Aocordinr; to nanson'B account, the 
black Cattel hore have auiell HornB and Vidr like Wool, 
very lont-; about tVie Jianea, On t>it-ir backs they have a 
greet launch; their '''•orelegs are sViort, with a great Beard 
hanging fron'i the I'eok; ana their Tail a ^^-re long and hairy 

t(39?atcis tv f ■ ''ri'.;; go that they partake of the Deer, tne 

2 
Lion, and the 3hoep," 

In t}i|:3, as in th'^ e.trly i^znerican textbooks, the 
niani^u'rrn of* the vj.riou^ •peoples received a great deal of 
at 'c'inti.ja, i'jHldoni '*as this topic omitted in the discussion 
of any ■"jountrvr. uazer booic^ secin '^o have copied tiieir 
d©scriot'i...ri:i or* t}ie Iri'ih fron the folio -ving: 

"Kan.icrs} The Character oT the Iri-ih by ;)r. Ucyiin 
is tills, 'Vliey nre a people gcj.er.illy strong and nimble of 



1. Ibia, p. M7. 

2, Ibid, p. 346, 



-51- 

Body, generous of Heart, crrelesn of their Lives, patient 
i)i Cold and Hunger, inplacatle in Enmity, constant in 
Love, lii^ht of Belief, pjres-iy of Cilory. In a .Vor'-i, if 
they arg T^adf, you shall no ^here finJ worse; if they be 
frood, you can hardly rreet with "better," 

PGoause of th>! fact that many lln'Uish neorir-.'ihies 
were uned in America even after the .^evolutionary v/ar, 
some .-jpaoo >iE3 been devoted to tiis book ty 'Jordon. It 
iH tvT>iC'^.i 01 the T;eof^r:;phie3 us^d iuriivt- the c:i,Thtee.nth 
century. Our early American textbooka QOiopare n;ore favor- 
ably with this book by ■'Morion than ono Aiould expect, in 
f'jct, in zoii-e. respects th6:y are aeciiedly auj-erior, a^- 
thoup;h, on the vFhole, they are of a very similar nature. 

The author of.' the first i^jmsrican scr.ooi geoiJiraphy 
wan .Tedidiah orse, ndnister of tr e Cor.grepatio7-tsi CViurch 
in CharlGtston, ^'assachuEetts, This took -hhb piillished 
in 17 PA in JJear Haven, Connectinut" and was entitled 
C3eo;?raphy 7-ade iiiasy. ?or a nuaiber oi ytars ijorije'D boolc 
was the -inly .American geography textbook in use, but before 
t}u^ end of thn century a few oth&r geoj^raphie^ wore Luib- 
liwhad. It wad a litcle IS iw. isat!;cr- bound book dedicated 
"""o the Young ''astoT" and ^'isseo Throu/^hout The ijnttsd 
States", The vtI irrje contained four hundred thirty-tvvo pages 
a!3 pri.itod in th3 tent! editio). In lii06.- Tt contained two 



1, Ibid, p. 21'd, . 

2, Johnson: Oli-Tiine 3o ha. and .i ch, Eook^ . p.j. .^16-319. 
'6, I'orse: Geor, Kade a^Iasy, 10th Ed. 



-52- 

araall maps, one of the world, and one of North AraeriCH, 
These maps were merely plain, uncolored out-lines siiowinif^ 
fairly accurately the rrmin outlines of the larger land 
raaaaea and tracing more or lesb ttccurateiy t^ie couraeu of 
the principal rivera, T>ie larger towns were also aiiown. The 
map of ]:orth /InericH proves t}ie author to }iave >iad very 
little knowledi^e of the couroea of the rivera weat of the 
FisDigaipni and only a freneral idea as to the aliaoe of the 
Great Lakoa and their connectio?;o 'ifith eaoJi otJier, The 
TRap s>'0ws no outlet frrr-' Lake Huron to Erie, the vrqterg of 
the three upp«;r l^A'es "beinc discharged nortliWciru throuj^h 
ft hr;-nr;i'; of the Churchill irto Hudson Eay, There '^re no 
illustratioria. 

The ef:rly pa^Tssi are occupied ty niaterial dealing 
vdtli astronomy, mathematical geography, the use of the glohes, 
latitude f^nd lori;d. tude, the uae of reaps, and a a' ort account- 
of tna discovery of 'Unerica liy Ooiuiribus, After a "fieneral 
Description of America" the author diticuaaes North i\aerica 
as a \7hol« and then deals \Tith each of iti3 separate political 
diTiu.)n'? in tiArn. The material ia arrani';ed in paragraphs 
of a fev sentences each, and t>ie paraf.'iraph neadinfcs are 
5U0h as the foiior/irii';; nituation and boundaries; climate 
and diae-i '«!!; :'ace of the country, mountaini^, rivers, produc- 
tio.i)3, population and character, history, towns, literstrre, 
educf.'tion, hridctis. canals, curio :;i ties. In this and the 



-53- 

other early texts we find a great deal of attention devoted 
to varioua subjects under the ineadinp of curiosities. The 
follo'vii;,"; deacription of a waterfall in Potucket Piver, 
near Providence, io typical: 

'.•Aoout 4 .7,ile3 northeast of Providence, lies e small 
viil-age, caliei Patuclcet, a place of some tr;3de, snd famous 
for lanr-jr^y eela, Throuf;h t)ii s viiiarr;e ning Pr-tucket river, 
which empties into 3eehonk river at this place. In t'-iia 
rivnr i.i3 a be<;.utiful f?-ll of v-;at.yr, directly over which a 
■brid<y;e h^zg been built, and w}iic>i diviias the c-'mmon-vvealth 
of Kasaachu^etta from the state of Rriode-Island. Th« fpll, 
in its .vnole lenj^th is upwards of fifty feet. The wtter 
pRBseo through several chaaniS in b rock v?Mch runs diPTietricai 
ly across the bed of the atreaj'., and serves aa a dcT. to tVe 
v/ater, levc ral lailla 3iave "been erected upon theje fnlla; 
aiju the iHpoutK' and channels wracK ]iave beon constructed to 
conduct the strearsa to their respective wheels, and the 
ur'..V-rj, "i;.ive tair«jn -rery rnuch froiri the beauty and p:r?;ndou:r 

of t]\e. 30C'ne, w}iich would otherwins have neen ind«aoriV.j?bly 

1 
chariiiinj? and rornantick." 

Gui;}) dfiivcrip'-.ions of naturel phenomena under t>ie 

titlf^ of ourJLositifcu rre coi.Mon throuphout the books of 

th'3 fc-p-rly Tiir.etecnth century. "he larger part of the n;aterial 

if', ^ ovr ver, of p nf tare P-ore nearly like th'.t foMr.'l ir rnany 

1, Tbid, p. 152. 



-54- 

of our present-day geof?;rnphy texts. ?>>e followin^j 
degcription of the trade find nar.ufactureg of the people of 
Vermont '!*\»rni ?hey a fair sarnple of this type of ir.a Serial : 

"The inhabitanta of tliia state trade principally with 
Eoaton, TTew "'"orlc, nnd TTartford,'' and pearl aahes chiefly; 
"beef, borBP-j, (?rain, florae "butter and choeoo, lumber, etc. 
"he inhabitants generally nanufactijre their ov.'i-! cloi.hing in 
the fcmilj' v/ny. 

Vast niiftntities of pot and P'?''-! aahea are ijade in 
eysry part aT the jstate. But one of the r.out inportant manu- 
f-?.cture3 of t>d3 Mt'to i:=! that of riaple :iU(Tar. ''"^ 

"^ho parrig^^Hpyi iir:;;edi-itely' foiioving tlio o/ie Juat quoted 
\'^ hoadoil "Population, !?elj.t.\on and Gharncter'' and i si as 
follo-wa: 

"In 1790, acccrdir't to t>ie cenraus ther. taken, this 
Rtp.te contJ^aneo 813, o6Q ir;>!gbi tsrty , corsiating chiefly of 
eiiiifr'^nts fror Connecticut and '■'aaaachugetta, and their 
desceridantn, ^'or tht; nmrbt3r o.r iiihabitantu in 1300, see 
Table. Two to\vn«hi. -^s ir. Orangs country are nettled 

prinoipallv by icotch people. T'le body of fue people are 
Cc.-i,':re.-;atior. vli ■-'■-•■^. '^^z vTthor ,ieno;»iim-' '' ^ -^/is are prcabyteriana, 
BaptiTta nnn li'pj. Bcopaliara, 

The irih^;bit«nt3 of tl i .5 ..;tate are {.-.li aoaemblage of 
people frori v?:r?.c.u'^i ylaoe'^, of ..liffeit-nt sentinicnts, i:ianr.ers 

1, Ibil, p. 116, 



-55- 

and habits. They have not lived together long enough to 
n3s"indlote and form a general character. Assemble together, 
in imafrination, a number of iij dividual a of different nationn, 
consider tliem as living together araicably, and assisting 
each other through the toils and difficulties of life; and 
yet rigorously opposed inparticular religions and political 
tfmfetg; jealous of their rulera, and tenacious of tVieir 
liberties; dispositions which originate naturally fror: the 
dre.^d of experienced nppresision anj tjie habit of iivin;^ 
under a free goverrunent -- and you have a pretty Just idea 
of the cliarscfjr of the peoi>le of Yerraont," 

After dGaiint>; -.fitli each of the atatea in turn I orae 
turns to the '*Spaniah Doiainiona In North-<\jiieriCci" conaisting 
of Ifest and /ent Florida and L^exico, Next he discusses the 
??parish a);eaking countries of Uouth .XmeriC'i and then 
"Portuguese jtoerica", the .Ve:3t Indies, Europe, Asia, Africa, 
and the ne^'ly dii^covered continent of V.ev ■'■Holland, now known 
ftjj Australia. The last ni)ieteen pat-:e:3 .'?re occupied by a 
ohronclogioal table niving the dates of ircportant events 
in the wo-"ld's history. 

ThiP book has been discusaed sonewhat r>.0TC full./ than 
will be done with those following. Space will not allow 
much pore than mere liention and an occasior.al quotation. "Tie 



1. Ibid, pp. 115-117. 



-56- 

gradual changes in the character of the books .•;nd the 
topics discussed will he taken up in connection with the 
tablon p.regen'f.ed on pp.-ios 60 rnd 70 to 71 , inolu'jive. 
•The hooka will he conaidered in the order of th'eir pubiica- 
tion, and attention will he civbii to det;iils not bTjowii in 
the tnhi^'r:' aa v;cll as to thoise w)iioh ar« tabulated. 

Krtot of the curly geograpViieg were boiond in leather, 
hut hy 18S0 flome xvere beinif^ bound with card hoard p.nd 
wood, covered with narbled paper, Ticyt of tv.-f^.m vie-t: 12 no, 
hut souie ^ere aa sratli as 32 no, 'i'he fmrlieRt Yjoc.'ku 
usually contained one or two uncolored rncpB, but befe:,inning 
Bhortl.v after IBIiO the authorn of the fZ^o^rriphy t^xt 3 in- 
eu)crur??ted the austori of puhlifihing Gepprv-tf? atlases with 
each vniurae. Only a oomparatively few volumes were pub- 
lished previcuM to the Civil \Var pf-.^iod withou.t the &ccoiq>any- 
inR Rtlfir;. At that tir-e, howevnr, the eld 12 I'lO. boci: and 
the aeparp.te atirs Turere being d.inplpced by the hi/*, flat 
vrlur.e with widch v/e aro ell fenilirr f.nd tvhich cor.tf.ins 
it" ovrr rrrn. 

?/orsP's earliest rjvsl wnr^ IT-tht-riel "Dvripiht, Dwifht 
puhiirhed s. G-eo^rrrhy of the World by ^Muy of Oueet j on &nd 
Ai-!fmpr in 17^5. It was ^isde t>p entirrly cf cjuesticnn and 
answers and was der.irned tc he "ncrc easily understood 
hy children, tbe.n any cf the ?.ninll ^eogrspbies which have 
beer, heretofore deiirined for their". Th«; following material 



1, ])wi:;ht: Geof;^^ of th fi '^orli, IBIO, 'lee Preface, 



-57- 

deslinp; with the county of ',7aies is typical of the organiza- 
tion: 

•♦(i, vVhat are tJie producti ona of V/ales? 

A. The vegetable productions are like those of Enaiaud, 
and the aniraala differ only in siae from those of England; 
those of Wales beinji; siueiler and less vp.luable, 

{j^, vVhat number of inhsibitants is there in Wales? 

A, There are about three hundred thouHand. 

Q,. ^lat are the cuatona and msnnerg of the W'eloh? 

Ai. 'xhey are a ,ie.7lcu3 penpie, but eanily pwoil'if^d, and 
Tory sincere in t/ieir friend^hipe. ?}i.ey are fond of 
trscin*?; bf?.ok thoir nedlFrreea, and r-ire very much attached to 
tlie inannern o*" their forefather j, ",CT;;e cf the 'Velch gentle- 
;tien, ■'•lo^/ever are fond of imitBtinc the Ti^rsgiish node of 
living, "-^ 

A Kew 3y stein__0f Modern G3o,'jr.:: p hy , 1810, by "51 i J ah parish, 
another Ifew :^ngland isinister, tss very ^^irilar \d content to 
Morse's book. It dealt with practicsily the naw.e topics, con- 
tained the same two mapg, "' and wan arrani-'ed 3irnil-irly 'vith 
reference to paragraphing <md para^Tr-rjh hsadinss. '/i.licts'' 
Cc;;.^ ppr.riiou9 Sygteni Of Geogrophy, published ir; 1819, intro- 
duced nothin'-; ne?,' except a G''u->rt :31scuoriion of /nap -jrawing, 
it coMtaired no KspD, Tliere i^aei one i.^portsnt chnrt,:je in 
connection vi'it]' this geogfaphy, t}-ou£.h not in t'*' e bock itself? 
A Separate alias conttiiun/r i..ap?! re bu vscd ir coiinoction vith 



1. Ibid, p. ?5. 

2. A lit'.le book by Benjairdn "trki-'ian entitled Llenientp of Ge og raphy , 
the t;7elfth euitioi: of -AV.icVi wrn publiched in 1607, con'- 
tairiGd seven sjti:=11. uncolored !?.ar>s. Thev are rafter in- 



-58- 

the text was piilDliahed at the rir.ne tino, end thia waa one of 
a lonf^ liBt of atlases publinhed with tho texthooke up to 
the time follcvlnf? the Civil ';7r.r, Few of thece ctlasea 
seem to he in «:.xi?ter?ce et vveRcnt, 

A texthoolc entitled A }7ew oyijterp Of QQcgraphy, /uic ient 
and fiTo d,ern , _?or^ thp. TJge Of 3G'ior)l3 "by Jedidiah Korse and 
3idney Edwards Tiorae ^raa very popular during the firat quarter 
of the nineteenth century. The tv/«nty-tHlr'3. edition -^iis 
published in 1822. Thi3 hook wa3 diffor«nt froM thoae pre- 
cedint'; in t}i/;t It contained a t'.venty- seven page diacuoaion of 
"iincient Gec^raphy", n. sjuhjoct coriunon to tiic- textbooks until 
after the Civil Met, i'ot ail textn tc<-r^- ;-pf-oe to tr.i*: particu- 
lar fsulgoct, ho-wever, ss oen 'ae readily neoii l^ rcferei.ufe to 
th6 tablen mentionfed above. The r-iRterip.l included v/aa a 
study of "/hat would no'v he celled the ^eogr^^pTiy F.ncL hisjtory 
of Palestine, E>xypt, Carthage, and the Grecian and Hoo:an 
States, 

CuraHiings''^' texthook, firnt ou'^-liislied in 1014, ir'.ade no 
clifinj^e of iT^ortafjce except th?it it save -slif^htly more apace 
to the c j.MraeroiHl phnae 6f the suhiect. A hoo}<: "by './iilcts^ 
designed eapecinlly for elewontary ^cho'-.l use er^jitains ir.uny 
que.jtion? based on the nape in the r-t.l-?y aco'^Tiiianyint^ the 
tQAthook. r'/ie t«nt}i edition of thir; hoo]: c;b.'i pu'LliJhed in 1823. 

A 3hort aiimxnery of the cont^nte of the tejcthooKS up to 



1« ¥or9e & Morae: Ee g Sys t . of GfeQe;_.__ A,"g. and .::su. *3rd iid, 
2, CujTBoiings: Ari Intro duct. To Anc. ond Fod. _Geof. 

$ a yi 1 i e 1 3 : ^■'ii-^Y nrara . pf ^ o^s o£ , 



-59- 

ie?4 "by nr-.-no of T.-jble I on psf-re 60 will be of value at this 
point. "he first 3ix boo>cs li'-'ted ii^ the table have "boeri 
discussed. Of tiie s-.ix «ii devoted apace to deccri:)tive 
geofjraphy, An ^vnich political uniti pre de-ilt with in turn; 
to physical geography in wh.ich therf? irs an introdiiotory or 
sunnjary disoussioi) of l?jnd and ^ater form^, climate, and ::oil, 
without r^fernrics to any particLilar politio-^l iiivisinri; 3jnd 
to MP.thenatical f--*eoo:riohy, iu which guch f:-.iV.,ji-ctt'. «9 Ir'titufle 
and longitM-?, th3 zoT-.n^i, (toclj r;?>.tj.ou of thtj earth 'n axig, 
E.'iJ chr'na;e o*-" -^e^^viona ri:r;; td hju ^rjei. T-ortjs? and Horse, and 
Wxllol"s ir. I'is more ulc-.w.ntHTy text, ^H.vf> ^p,;'.oe to aiicient 
g*; 0{?r.';vh;/ . T'^ir' r'^ari.-ijr nriy question the R<5p?iration of 
mfi^riemntic-^i r:eoj';rn;;}iy and ;>Btunor!y. The circimatancey .jUHtify 
thi'3, hO'TGve-". Tf!ach o? th;:-orr six nooks devotee a v'.uuhf^r of 
pages to a fliBcuaslon n" aatfonor.i.y ivi t;i practic£iiiy ro r<--fererce 
to itf; relati'vn to geography. In huc>( cf-'Bew the Faterirl 
waa lir.tod under tltc , cad of astrorjoriy. Three of the- six 
take up the aue&tlori of map xriRkiup- as a seperete topic, and 
Morwe devot.ei: threr. pages tn a separate dificussion of the 
▼ariouG rficoc cf hwaun Vind. T.oJ-ae f.nd Pari f'h ef?r:h included 
maps of thf- ,%o:ad an-l of Forth iorierlca in their hookn, f^nd 
th.t; othrv fcur hftve BOTiavote RtXaees. >ione of the six rrake use 
of illustrr::.tions« 



•60» 



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to to STi « H f-4 iH C'J Ci CJ .-^ C-i t-J 01 W 



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-61- 

With the publication of /orceuter's Elep.ents of 
Geography. Ajicient and vodern , stereotype e«litiori, in 1824 
four new subjects began to receive separate treatment in 
the intro.'luctory portion of the tey.tbocks. v;oroe&ter devotea 
one half of a page to each of the following: races of the 
world, the different religions of the world, the different 
forms of government, the state of oivilisation or society 
in different part a of the world. The following description 

of the different racer* is typical of what is to be found 
dealing irith that subject in practically all of the geographies 
from that dnte until aftor 1S60. 

"The hun.'^.n npecies, though descended froia one coraxaon 
origin, exhibit a gr^-st diversity of coiiplf.xion, forrj, character, 
and improvement, Tho nogt fttvortible sti-tc of booiety is 
found in the temperate zonei; here civilization tuont prevails; 
and the inhabitants cire i-'ost digtingui-^hed for in.iuatry, 
enterpri;^c, intelligence, and peryonal beauty. In the frigid 
zone the ntature of man does not usually oxceed four fe t. 

Complexion . The htirnan species, nkitli regard to com- 
plexion, are divided into two gre t classes, one wh ite, and 
the other black , fhese two divisions include six sub- 
divisions or races; the fir^t conprising the white , the 
tawny and the copper- coloured ; the second the black , the blackish, 
and the dark bro'vn. 

1. T'he UHiite, or Caucasi an ..^ce. includes nearly all 
the Unro-^^.ep-na , except the Laplanders; the Ci rca si^jr-^ns . 



-62- 

Georglane , Ars^M ana , Turks , Per si ana , and Hindoo s. 

2, The T & w ny , o r Olive, or Kongolian I^ ece, includes 
the other inhabitants of the liaatern and Southeaaterr. parts 
of Asia, except the l.^^alaya; and also the Laplanders in Europe. •* 

He continues in the same manner, naming the various 
peoples <7hich belong in the race groups mentioned, 

Worceater devotes thirty-seven pages to '"hrst he calls 
"Tabular Vicvs'*, ThiG material oon^iists of tal-les dealing 
with very maxiy topics, frorti the areas in square inilni of 
contine-nt'S and political divisiono to the number of volumes 
in t}\e principal li'brarie3 of the world, Fei^'-hts of moun- 
tain pe-^lc!!, popt.'.lati()n of oitiea, exports and imports of 
varioutj ouuntriea, amourita of public debts, n^uobers of ships 
in navies, proportion of births, deaths, and niarri-^^es to 
number of inhabit.^..nts, and many similar topics -?rR included. 
There is also a li 3t of questions baaed on f^ioae table??. 
Twenty-four pares are devoted to ancient geography, end many 
pane3 ?.re devoted to questions based on the mapy in the 
accoirrpar.yinj?; atlas. 

The Halte-rrun School CTeof^raphy by Griswald Goodrich, 
1830, was "chiefly derived from I'alte-Brun**? the great ]?r «ch 
geof^rapher. This book ir.troduces another innovation. It con- 
tains many Mmall engravin^^s of aninais, people, and ob.^ects 



1 • Wo r c o 3 1 e r , ] ■' 1 e ments _of_ _(7eogrr :p>iy, Ar .'Cient _an d _ro derr. ,_ 3 1 e r o - 

type ISd. pp7T7-18.~ 
2. Goodrich: A 3yst. of ochorl Coog. title par;e. 



discussed in the text, T^ost of thece are atiff and un-life- 
like and, accordine to present standarda, would be considered 
crude, "but nevfc;r-the-leo8 they are a decided improvement over 
the utter ahaence of any illut'trationa, Clrxey • s Iractical 
3 y8t em of ?/oder r' ncQ ^ ^;rai)hy was another populfa- work as is 
shown hy the fsct that the 3eventeent]i edition was published 
in 1834, juHt Bix yepr-? after t}i3 i;ublioal.iw/i of the fir^t 
edition. This little book wao wade up partly of descriptive 
and partly of question and ansf/er nateriai. It cont«ined 
long lintB of iT-ap querjtiona and nuiucrous iliuatratxone. The 
inadequate way in which th«-'3e early textV;ookB dealt witli the 
geography of fi coimtry or region la shuvvn by the following 
treatrert of Wales, 

"V/al%s 
How iE V/&le9 bounded? 



Wales is a niountainous country, generally resenbling; 
England in clini';te, ^oil and productions. 

Wales wag conquered and uiiited to Ji;n;!jland in 128^", by 
Edward I, 

Th« el^etU 3on of the Kingof England ia styled friuet 

of Wales, 

Character .- Tiie Welch are the dosoendantrt of the 
ancient BritonR. T-ey nre a passionate, but honeat, brave and 
hoapi table people.. 



-64- 

In what direction from us is Wales? \iVhat Channel S, 
of "Yalea? .Yhst Channel "between walea and Ireland? What 
I aland near the northern part of felea, diatin^ui shed for 
its THineg of copper? ,V?iat 2 Towns in WgIc^j?" 

The Knc ;yclo p aedia Of aeogruphy " by Thorjio ". Snilsy 
was publifshed in Cincinnati in 1839, Its orfjcnl action -^aa 
not different frOiH that of t?;e earlier texthook'.^. The hook 
did not treftt r^ap raakint ad a ^cparct-c su'-^ject. GoodricJi 
and Olney hnd axso omitted thi a oi.ce popular ^.utjcct, and 
it fails to reappear in any o± Die later booics. The illus- 
trations ,ive miifieroua but show little iiaprovenont in quiiity. 
Swiiey publiahef) a ueparaue alias a.; wati done by his predecessors 
for rany yer^ra, ?he next volur.ie listed ii. the tables nhowa 
a Qhnntre in tVii s reapeot. This boolt is "Ji t jhoil ' u I'.i-.ay Intro- 
duct ion To the Study of rreo^rap l xy , puba.i33ied i/i lt343. The 
ides of our present big, fiat volome seens to have occured 
to ii'itchell. This priirary j7eogr;-iphy is 3jri.all, ir.Ga:3uri:ui five 
by Bix inches, but the significant thing is that it lacJcs 
only one inch of being as wide as it ia hirth. This extra 
wiflth provifies arr.ple apace for fourteen r.mall, colored .vapiSf 
ranch like those we have today. They ahow a fairly accurate 
knowledge of the phygical featuies of t}iu various continents. 



1, Clney, A Pract. 3yst. Of i:od. UecHi. i7th Ed, ,p,i80. 



-65- 

Pew cities are ahowii, Arother fppti.!re of tVij s little 
"book is the introfluotion of rur.'bereti parap;r«ph3 without 
the topio hoadin.TS no fan.ilifir in the earlier books, Qn- 
pecially before 1830, The nRterinl ia simple and readable 
"but is not alw?iya accurate, 

"1. South America, the southern division of the 
Western Continent, ir* ?n «»xtenstve P«ninr,ula, united to Forth 
America by the Inthnue of l^arien, 

2, It is fimoust for it^ Isr^rc river?, high niountaina, 
and the nbundance of its .'^old, silver, ?nd 'Jiaronrts, 

3* Ths Ande-3 is the 'Doit extensive ranpe of mountains 
in 3ov.th j'ViQeric?^* Sorato i3 the hlrjhe^t oe^V of the Andeo, 
Cotopaxi ia the moet elevr^ted volcino on the ftiobe. 

4, The A*na%on, La Platr., Orinoo, an-i ot. l?rinoifico, 
are the chief riverg of this rec-;inn. ""he A'Tiazon i?, next 
to the yi33i33i7)ni , th'3 lar.'»ent rivf?r in th ? worll, ind ia 
navigntlf? for tliree thousand miles.** 

The txTre had not yet arrived lyhen ail geographers 
were re^.iy to accept the hip flat volurae and include the 
maps in the textbook. In fact very few wore ready to dn so, 
WoodTaridf^e' n elementary textbook, the second edition of which 
wea published in 1845, was of the old type ^rith tht3 '3eparat8 
atlas, Tlovrover, t'ds book nag a nirnb^^r n^ interesting and 
prot^reaaive featuroa. The first five pages are devoted to 

1, Mitoh<lll: An Tjasy Intrn-iu c t. To the ^tnly of Geog .,p.78, 



-66 - 

an explanation of what a nap really ia. He compares pictures 

and mapa or plans, "beginning with s room. He next compares 
a picture of a town with a map of the same and finally ex- 
plains what ia meant by the map of a small island. Towns, 
aohoola, and roada are all shown on the map, and yet it is 
a very simple one. There are no real maps in the book, but 
outlines of the different continents have been Irawn in 
order to nrepient easy methods of rap irniving. The outlines 
of Tforth and ?iouth j\nerica have beftn >lrawn in t}ie familiar 
trianpilea and that of Africa in an eg^s-shaped oval, A third 
interesting feature of the book also deserve^s mention. 
Profiles or cross sections of the various continents and 
countries have been included. This rSpreaents a very con- 
siderable advance and corresponds with the euix^hs'.si r, placed 
by V7oodbridge on the interpretati '^n of mapB. 

Smi th ♦ (3 freog::^ aphy Of The P rodu ct_^i ve ■>y8t em^ publi shed 
in 1861, is also of the old type with the 8epa:"ate atlas, 
"mitVi uses t h? numbered pararr-^phs end supplies vors details 
in his descriptions t>fin do the earlier writern. ris book 

also oont^njis fewer inacouraCien than the books Df the 
•fir^t half of the cenlury. The foLio"?i.n~ desoription of 
Kngland in t:rpic?.l: 

"1, England, anciently called Ubion, in the largest 
and uio 3t populous division of r*.feat Brit-in. It has an 



1, .Voodbri d^e ; I'.q d. 3ch, Geog. , p. XI, 



-67- 

agreeable variety of hills and plains, with no very high 
mountaina, and its scenery is exceedingly beautiful, 

2, The soil is fertile and under a hi^h atnte of 
cmltivation, producing whea' , barley, rye, oats, beans, peas, 
etc. The /lorses, cattle, and various kindo of sheep of 
England are much celebrated, 

o. The o.lircate, though fror. itn cituation inclined 
to moisture and chilliness, is healtViy ana leas subject 
to the disagreeabifi extreii:es of heat and cold than other 
places in the earae latitude on tluv continent, 

4, The mineral prociucti oj^t; of Enf^land are nuireroiis 
and valuable, such aa coal, copper, tin, iron, fsilvpr, n;ino, 
and le£.;i, iingland it; the ir.c ^tt commercial country or. the globe 
and has fror.i itc numerous cenriiti an ext£K^iys i.-tlcnd rsviga- 
tion. It is also nuch fjimed for t>ie extent and variety of 
i%^ Manufactures," 

^he aut>icr thun devotes fro.':, tiiree lines to half a 
yage to each cf the foliovring cities: London, Liverpool, 
}iunche.Qter , Bi^^un^.hayL^, 'Jhefiield, Bri-^tol, Leeri», Bath, 
Portarr^outh, I'll^^lnu^}^, Ohaiham, 

'.?hi'j bouT: it; iiituniea for acadeii.ieu as well as for 
gr.snrr.ar scliools but e^ven the diiferenoe in purpos^e doe?^ not 
account for the wnoie diifereuce in the nu/nber of deti-ilR 
given. It is a deciusd iiiiproveraent oie.r enrlxfir y.'orva, "^he 



1, Smith: Geop;, Of the Productive Sytt., P. 219. 



-68- 

one hundred fifth edition of Olney's "book, published in 
1866, 3how3 little improvement, "but Mitchell's A Syste m 
of ? odern (> eography published in 1869 ia similar to Smith's 
hook. 

Of the books included in the table there remains to 
be mentioned one voluifie, Thi a is Cornell's Internee diate 
Geo{Tr jphy . Thig book was flrnt. publiished in 1855, b^it the 
date of 'jublioation of the edition exo.rainod by the writer 
was not .liven. The dste r!!U3t hrjve been betviref-;n 186b and 
1369 because in a lint of the Pre ?idei).ti3 of the 'Jaitei'.i States 
Andrews Johnaon's ad.Tiini strati vm ia dated i86f>— ■, end that 
ends the ii3t. 

The book is the fa^^iiliar large, thin, flat yoiune 
which me i:T!>iedit?.teiy reoo^rrize &;? a geoaT;?phy, It contains 
f'irty- seven mapa of various, sorts. They 7ary in siTie of 
the ar-a re-ores-inted fro^n s city and it3 i/nniediate vicinity 
t-) the vholQ world. 'Che riapa are colored and are reasonably 
aocurate. The i liu3tration3 ■;re fairly nanierouis and are not 
eo fitiff a!3 were those of the earlier period. 

Another booit of a sli^'itly e^irlier period iesoz-ves 
raentron, althou.':^h it haa. not been included in the tables. 
This book by 7^n wntera is co.-ipoaed almost entirely of 
short rhymes. A sound iii defined thus: 

"A Strait !?o shallow that it8 depth is found, 
By lead or anchor, oft is caixed a eoand. " 



1, Van Waters; Po ft,t i oal ■'re o^ n phy , p, 9, 



-69- 

The follo'Yinc description of the state of liaaouri 
is also typical. 

"Arid Jefferaon City on a hinli "bluff smiles. 
Up the T'issouri tide t^vice sixty rrdles, 
On the sjune tide, just twenty from its mouth, 
St, Charles is on the north hank, not on the south. 
And Independence, west of all hath laid lier, 
Prom whence for Janta Vc, leaves many a trader, 
St, Louia, on the riaslaaippi ' a aeom, 
Down from Missouri's mouth miles seventeen, 
Prom New Orleans, tvirelve hundred mj the tide, 
IfSssouri's larf^oat town, Missouri's prid;;. 
And from 3t, Louis, seventy miles laoutlmeat, 

Potosi lives, j<no»vn for her lead tne uest,'' 

70 7/ 

i>ages -±±^ to -iJr©T inoiiu s iva ., a.re devoted to the 

tahulation of the topics discuased by varioma authors under 

descriptive geography. The same sixteen textbooks are need 

in this study as in the previous one. The raaterini selected 

from each of the textbooks for the pur-pose of .making this 

study was the descriptive material used in the discussion of 

the United States as a wnole and also of tlit .=iix Few iCngiand 

states. This material was carefully analyzed and tJ-e jr.?ln 

topic diacussed in each paragraph or t;roup of paragraphs 

selected. In this way a list of the topics discuased in each 

1. Ibid, p, 26, 



-70- 

of the fifteen aeleoti one was compiled. A coraporiite list 
waa then n.ide, cor.taininK nil of the topica diacuased in 
any one of the fifteen BClections, and theae were arran ed 
as in Teolc II. The croasea indicate that the topic named 
in the laft-hand column in the position corresponding to that 
of the cross was diecusaed by the author Khotje niiniber i3 at 
the top of the column in v-hich the croea iu locstea. If a 
parti cx^lar topic lies i.ot been aiscuased by an autnor the 
appropriate apace iu left blank. For inetartce, -orcevster in 
his I^lements of Geop^rcphy, Ancient and !;.ocern devotes uorae 
attention to the situation and extent of the country, but 
he says nothing about t}ie coastline and horbora. Of courae 
there ia rauch which such a table cannot show. Ao an illus- 
tration the bcok by Goodrich laay be mentioned. iU.thouf;h no 
more topics receive attentio)i tli.m in the eG5j.i83" booka 
many »r:ore detailo are given, ana the aeacr^ptions arc of 
an easy, flowing type which are entirely different from the 
earj-ier, scrappy variety. 

An exai,:x nation of the table showa a definite trond or 
tendency. One outot 'jnainti fact to be noted is that fev/er 
topica are incj.uded m the later cextbooka. This tendency to 
diacuas f5-<-^er itfiraa but to f^ive ir.ore detailed ir.fonaatio.n 
about each of those diacuased haa already been mei;taoned in 
connection wit}i soue of the later booka, such ao t^'osje of 
Srcith and I.!:itchell, ^-u.cther peci^liar feature is the ii.cluaicn 
of internal ir-prcveirients in .'geography. The terro is farr^iliar 



i 



-70- 

TABLE II 

TOPICS DISCUSSED IK THE DB3CRIPTIVK GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES BY 

VARIOUS AUTHORS, 1806-1869. 



Fopios 


Text 


^0. 


and 


Dat 


e of 


Pub 


• 










: . 











1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




'06 


•10 


'19 


♦22 

4- 


'23 


•23 


124 


•30 


'34 


•39 


_^4_3 


-L^A 


'61 


•66 


•67 


'69 


■ituation 


+ 


+ 






+ 






+ 




+ 


+ 




■♦■ 


■»• 


Bxtent 














+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 




+ 


+ 


•♦• 


+ 


Bhape 








+ 


























boundaries 


+ 


+ 


+ 




+ 






+ 


+ 












+ 




Bivil division a 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 








+ 










+ 


latural " 








•♦• 








♦ 








-¥ 




•f 


+ 




Bounties 






+ 






+ 






















Importance 


















■»■ 








■ •♦■ 


•♦• 






surface 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


Bountains 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


■ir 


+ 


+ 






+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


soastline 








+ 


+ 










+ 




+ 


+ 






+ , 


larbors 


+ 






+ ■ 
















+ 










sapes 


+ 




+ 






+ 






















Days 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 




















Islands 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 




















peninsulas 








+ 


























Irainage 
















+ 








+ 




+ 




+ 


fivers 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 






+ 




+ 




+ 




+ 


Lakes 


+ 


•f 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 




+ 




+ 










}limate 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 




+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


16 il 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 




+ 


■t 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


agricultural 


+ 


+ 


■ir 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


products 


































industries 












+ 


+ 










+ 




+ 


+ 




joramerce 


+ 


T 


■♦- 


+ 


+ 


■f 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 




+ 


+ 


janks 




+ 


+ 




+ 


+ 






















lanufactures 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


linerals 




+ 


+ 


+ 






+ 






+ 


+ 


+ 




+ 




+ 


liner al waters 


+ 


■¥ 


+ 






■¥ 




















'iahing 








+ 








•¥ 




+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


■»■ 






slants 




















+ 




+ 










l*oreat« 
















+ 




+ 




+ 










animals 


+ 


















+ 














lirda 


+ 


















t 














eptiles 


+ 
































Ish 


+ 






















+ 










iharacter of 


































people 


+ 


+ 


+ 










+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 










+ 


lationality o 


f 
































people 
•opulation 






♦ 














+ 




+ 


+ 


+ 






+ 


+ 




+ 




- 


+ 






+ 


+ 


+ 




+ 




+ 


joverninent 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


■*■ 




+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


residents 


















+ 








+ 




+ 




rmy 


+ 


+ 


+ 




+ 










+ 














lavy 


+ 


•t 


+ 














+ 















-7i. 



'opios 


?ext 


Vo, 


nnd 


T)!\t 


e of Pub 


• 








— -—— 








- •— — 






1' 


2 


3 


% 


h 


6 


i 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


ib 


£ 




»()() 


•10 


•19 


'22 


•23 


♦^33 


♦24 


•30 


•34 


•39 


•43 


•45 


•61 


•66 


•67 


♦® 


rerenue 


♦ 




+ 




























d«bt 


♦ 


+ 


+ 




♦ 
























Conatitution 


+ 


+ 






























practice of law 


•f 






























Bank of U.S. 


+ 
































state prlaona 




+ 


♦ 




























mint 


* 


+ 






























?08t-office 




* 






























^ii story 


•* 


+ 




♦ 






♦ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 




+ 


"I- 


+ 


♦ 


settlement (1 








♦ 










♦ 
















Intornal im- 


































provementa 


















♦ 
















bridge a 


+ 


■t 




♦ 


























oanals 


♦ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


♦ 




■♦• 


+ 






♦ 


4 




■♦• 






turnplkea 




+ 








+ 






















lighthouses 




♦ 






























roada 


+ 






■»■ 


























railroads 






















♦ 


+ 


•♦" 








steara'boats 






















+ 


+ 










trade routes 
















♦ 




+ 


+ 


+ 








•♦• 


towns 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


•f 


+ 


^ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


■t- 


+ 


•♦■ 


+ 


education 


♦ 


+ 




+ 




■♦• 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


•♦• 


+ 




+ 


literature 


+ 


♦ 


♦ 




















♦ 








schools 


-f 


♦ 






t 












+ 




♦ 








colleges 










•♦• 






+ 


+ 




+ 




•»• 








aeadeinlea 


+ 
































aooietiea 


+ 


+ 






























curioaitioa 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 






f 


t 


















public inatitu 


- 














t 


















tions 


































religion 


-♦• 


+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 




t 


+ 


+ 


+ 


t 




ir 


•♦■ 




+ 



For textbooka oorreiponding to text numbera see bibliography, p. 136, 



-72- 

enough in our present-day history texts but not in our 
geographies. Just how can wrt account for the attention given 
to canaln, turnpikes, bridges, steaniboats and railroads? 
Bridges and canals were favorites with the very early writers; '^ 
then turnpike3, railroads and ste^-imboats becciiae popular, and 
after 1822 bridges have little place in the discussion of 
internal improvements. Shortly after this date tur'npikes and 
roads lose their place, but canals continue a strong favorite 
on down to 1860, A perusal of the pages of any good American 
History deali)ig with the first half of the nineteenth century 
will give the answer. Roads, b idges, and canals had not 
received very serious consideration in the eighteenth century 
"but early in the nineteenth they became the subject of much 
legislation in addition to the advantage of ranking high as a 
topic for discussion. A big bridge was something unusual and 
inspired not a little awe, as is shown by some of the discussions 
in the vorks of I^orse and Parish. Of course canals gained in 
importance after the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825, 
Turnpikes leading into the West held a strong place in the 
discussions of the day, and after 1830 the r&ilrord became 
inorensingly important. In brief, there? was something here 
which people needed to know in order to keep abreast of the 
times, There was no place for it in any other sutject of the 
curriculum; so it found its way into the geographies. Put 
why was such material not included in history rather than in 



i 



-73- 

geoRraphy? mntory did not win its place in the curriculum 
until a later date. In fact, we find that the history which 
wag tauftht early in the nineteenth century was presented in 
connection with geography, Shortly after 1840 a number of 
Massachusetts to^ms began to introduce hintory as a subject in 
the curricul'.ira. This seems to have been the first real 
beginning made toward including the subject in the curriculum, 

?ifany other tOTjics with which we are faniliar in our 
present-day history texts are also included in the early 
geofcraphies. Among these are the Constitution, the United 
States Bank, public debt, the army and navy, the United otates 
Mint, revenue and expenditures, the post-office, state prisons, 
and practice of the law, T'any of the geographies also con- 
tained an account of the history of the country from the dis- 
covery of America in 1492 through the period of settlement 
and the Revolutionary War, Less of this historical material 
is found in the Geography tSxts published from 1660 to 1870, 
SmilPy's book, published in 1859 contained a great deal of 
such inatorial, but it aeems to have been transferred to the 
history textbooks between that date and 1860, 

If one I'ooks t>irough the table with the terns situation, 
extent , and boundaries in aiind, he will make another interest- 
ing discovery. The early geographies seldom failed to say 
soraethin,'; about the boundaries of a political unit, and if the 



1, TTatfield: Hist, of the iJ]lem,3ch, Gurric. In Fass, , pp. 51-55, 



-74- 

"boundariGB were not made the principal topic of one or two 
paragrjiphs, then the term situation was substituted, C^uite 
often location was substituted for the more familiar terms. 
About 1830 the word extent became common aa a paragraph 
heading, and the other terms appeared less often. After 1830 
the extent of t}ie country was a popular topic with the 
geographies, Tliis change must have been due to a growing 
realization of the size or extent of the coiontry. The west- 
ward noveraent wa0 on in full force, and the people were just 
beginning to realize that this grent western country was a 
very important part of the United States. They were learning 
itsr bigness and to be proud of the fact that it was so big. 

Curiosities were popular early in the century but fell 
into disuse about 1830, crowded out by more valuable sub- 
jects. One quotation dealing with the subject has already 
been given from ITorae, A second from Parish is of a slif^htiy 
different nature. 

"Curiosities.- On the bank of the Ohio, 22 n.iles below 
the mouth of the Wabash, is a stupendous cave. The entrance 
la 90 feet wide, the top arched, 45 feet in height. The 
cave ia 'JOO feet long, 40 feet high. The walls are ^rnooth, 
the bottom level, excepting the sides, -.vhich are raised in 
steps like the seats in a gallery. An orifice, through the 
roof of this cave, as large as a chimney, leads to another 
cavern as large as the lower. At Big Bone Lick, 3^ miles 



-75- 

below the Gre-^t Miami, bones of an enornoua size have been 
recently dug up, AmonR these were 2 horns, 16 feet long, 
18 inches in circumference, weighing 150 pounds each; also 
grinders, weighing from 3 to 10 and a half pounds each. The 
whole weighed about five tons.""^ 

A peculiar feature of the enrly texts is the fact 
that not one of the writers seeras to have made any attempt 
to explain the formation of the strange caverns which t>!ey 
described or to test the truth of some of the odd stories 
which they quoted. Neither was any attempt made to show 
the relation between the climate of a region and itfs products 
or its surface and its climate. There were pages and pages 
of descrixition but no attempt to reason, 

Much space was devoted by the early writers to the 
character of the various peoples. Dwight gives us an interest- 
ing description of the Irish: 

'•^, \7hat are the cheracteri sties of the Irish? 

A. They are impatient of injuries, implacable in their 
resentments and vehement in all their affections. They are 
of quick apprehension; courteous to strangers and patient 
of fatigue. The higher classes and some of the lower, are 
well educated and as respectable as their neighbors in like 
circumstrinces."^ 



1. Parish: A Hew Syste m of j odern _G eog r;iphy, p. 102. 

2. Dvright: A.S hcr't b'at Comprehensivfe tjyg t . of the Geo^. of the 
World, p. 37. 



I 



-7G- 

Toward the middle of the century thla topic also 
declined in importance. Other topico, auch as those, dealing 
with corcmcrcial and physical geography, with education end 
literature 7?ere demanding; the space, and with increasing 
travel people were becominR "better acquainted virith t^ie charac- 
teristics of other peoples. Such topics aa religion, educa- 
tion, and literature v/ere retaitied in the textbooks even 
through the Civil War period, A lirrdted amount of history 
also remained as did the many iteus of physical and coioraercial 
geography. The terms bay , cape , i sthnius , p;eninnula, and 
island are not quite eo numerous in the later booka, but this 
ia Merely because tJiey appear wore often in the map questions 
and so are left out of the descriptive material to a certain 
extent. At the close of the period terms dealing with cora- 
r'ercial geography are the most numerous and receive the most 
attention. There are indications that the subject is beginning 
to feel the influence of husiness and coinmerce an.; to become 
practical, 

Tfie boolcs rtiSGussed were by no means all those m use 
in tlie United ;>tateo before the Civil V/ar, In 1833 books 
by the foliowinji authors were in une in i ew York state: 
Woodbridge, Olney, v/illets, X'orse, Guimraings, aoodrieh, Clark, 
Peter Parley, Spafford, -i/orcester, and "illiard. An 

anonjnrtious vrriter in Ayaerican Annala of Education in 1832 says 



1, :?lagf-: liew York Ann, Kepor t of the oupt, of Com. Schools, 1 835, 

pp. 60-73;^ ~~^ ■ 



-77- 

that books by the following were in uae in the United States 
in 1832: ]?or9e, CumninGs, vyorcestor, VoodbridU^e, /illard, 
Goodrich, Malte-T^run, Willeta, Olney, .:>firi{;ht, Worcestor, 
Drury, Davie, 7oT7le, Smiley, Hall, J31ake, InKraham, Keith, 
Adana, 3nit.h, Butler, Field, Peter Parley, Tfart, and Hale,* 

Not all of these "books were in great denand at any 
one tirae, but there were several favoritea at any given time 
throughout the entire period. The favorite of one decade 
^TO'jild gradually decline in popularity and be displaced by a 
newer book. Books coBt considerable nior.ey, however, and 
money wan not plentiful during those years, as a result 
there was great complaint about the lack of uniforEiity.of 
texthookn. Often the teachers were co;cpelied to hear sesreral 
recitations in geography, the pupils using one book conprising 
one class and those using another book a second class. The 
follo'vin-T account by the county superintendent of Cayuga 
County, Ke\r York gives some inaicrht into the extent of the 
difficulty. 

'"^he whole number stud^/ing geogr.iphy in all the scViools, 
was 1507, Avera -e nuinber in each school, about 7; the 
winter and summer terns vary but little. The gret^tesfc draw- 
back on the improvement in this br^inch is the diveruity of 
books, {fensrslly reciting, particularly in suwmer schools. 



1. Anon, 3ch. -5k3. in the United States in Amer. .Uinals of Ed . 
Vol. II, 18327 p.~'375. '^i'or'' a wore "oonplete list of text- 
books in use betv,'een 1'776 and 1860 see appendix. 



-78- 

separp^tely. The aclioola where they were well claaaed were 
very rare, "^here is nucb room for iraprovement. The teac'iers 
arc not familiar -vith the practice of exercising the claflses 
on t>ie hi a ck- board, which, luidoubtedly is a very advantageous 
mode of irapreaaing on the memory the "boundaries of countries, 
the situation of places, &c, Hovirever, in the ifialn, tlie 
achoola ^Tere gonerally making pretty good improvement."^ 

r>uch ci)raplaintr5 were very corimon in the educational 
journals of the first half of the nineteenth century, hut 
there is no account of any particular effort having been 
made to relieve the situation. 



1, Young: V,Y, Ann. Rep »t. o f the 'Jup t. of Gom.Sch. ,1845. ,p.l02. 



i 



-79- 

CHAPTER V 
¥STF0D3 AND DlilVICKS UfiSD IJJ TEAGHIiJG G^IOGRAPIIY, 1776-1660. 

In two LTticlea in Yhe lillfiruentgry bc'ool Teacher 
during the ye^irs of 1909 and 191C Mr. G. A. Phillipa dis- 
cus seat thH rcethoda uaed in teaching geography from the 
period juat preceding 1800 xip to tlie tine hi a article was 
urritten. TTe oaya of the procedure "before 1800 that it was 
unorj^aniaed and unacientific. According to Mr. Phillipa' 
view physiography is the important factor underlying the 
Boonjraphy of the f?econ<i period, and industrial and economic 
geo.'^raphy are charanteriatio of the tiiird or recent period. 
The witor will agree with Fr. Phillips that in f?eneral he 
has characterized these periods correctly "buf. feela that no 
definite limit to the periods mentioned can he fixed. It is 
impossible to fix any such lij;iit. The change in the content 
of the geography taught during the laat century has "been 
so f;2*adual that we cannot specify any date and say that "be- 
fore that date one type of auhject raatter was characteristic 
and after it another type of suuject inatter wat? characteristic, 
'T'>ie t;,q}e'3 of suh.iect matter taught and the metliodi? uf 
teaching overlap and intertwine to such an extent that all 
of the laot century and up to the present tiae may "be con- 
sidered as one continuous period during which a slow but 



1, Phillips: '""he 'oevelopnient of . etViods in Teaching .'odern 

Eler'entn.ry Geography, In the El em. Sch. Teach. Vol. 10, p.42'i 



-80- 

conntnnt change was ever going forward. 

iTi this chapter it in fhe nur^o'^e of the writer to 
atreo3 eBy)f5olnlly fhe raethodf. of presenting the nateirial 
rather tV.p-r. tho tvpe of naterial presented. An effort will 
be pifsde to tr-ce the chanj^es in the methods of presenting 
thl'.T material and to wee wViat prorres!;, if any, is made "be- 
tween 1776 and 1960, Incidentally the content of the material 
taught Tn\J3t he f.:iverj attention in-sjo-far as it aft'ecte the 
method ox presentation, 

Phillips c>iaraoteriaed the early geography teaching 
well when Vie aaid that it was unorganized and unscientific. 
One i3 not jui-tiried, !iow67er, in liKitinK thia period of lack 
of organ! aati. in and scientific procedure to the yeerr. "before 
IBOO, Aooorline' to the teatimony of both 'vehater' and Oliver"" 
t.he aubjoct i?aa not ooinrrionly taught before that, date. The 
latter a-.'.ys that, the hooks were "very defective and mostly 
without naps", Neither mentions the exact method of present- 
ing the Material, whether it '*'a3 memorised or Merely read, 
Johnson*^ atates thrit textbooks were firat used aa readers 
'cut cite? no authority for the statement, ^e car. accept this 
etBterr.enz, V'Owever, in view of the fact th.at 're h:-jve evidence 
to prove t-bat such was t))e case when .Villiain 3. V'owle web 



1, Barnv^rd: Schools Aa They '^ere Sixty Yearg Atjo, In Barnard's 
iVner, Tour, of Sd. , Vol. XXVI, 1876, pp. 195-195. I'^uotea 
frovr letTeV .vritten by Foah .'/ehster in 184C, 

2, Oliver: How I was Educated fro-n 3ix to •fourteen. In papers 
R ead Bef o re Ainei-, In a tit. of In:i: tru ct. , July 36,1871 , p . 58 , 

3, Johnson: 01 '1^ Time t^ch^'s and Bch,*-Bo"oT<:3, p. 318. 



-81- 

in school, "^owle waa "born in 1795 and was cert-iinly in school 
duririf: the e;~riy years of the ninetennth century. Of geography 
teaching at that tine he sjiya, 

"■yi-iile I vras in soliool, j^eography was firut intro«luced 
as a regular exerciae, and on the whole, tiie rnet>io<3 of 
instruction rraa wore rational than that whxch haa nince pre- 
vailei, although its result was rery oiirdlar, 'Hie chief book 
U:;ed ran v.n abrid^jeuont of I>r. l^or;?ae'f3 Univeri'-Hi •>'Ography» 
but it was read only, and not committed to memory. It vrao 
never explained to the pupiln, and being qxute unintelligible, 
was, of course, very 'unintere-.ting. 'I'he only portion that 
was tolerable, was a description of the aninals of ti>is 
country; and this was to thf? desert a sort of oasis, which 
we visited, in the coarse of our readint^, Oiily about onoa a 
yesr. The book contained one or two maps, but re were never 
required to examine them, and, in niost cases, they were soon 
torn out and t-brown av/ay as the most useless things in the 
world. To beguile the tedious hourn of idleness, which then, 
as no'.v, constituted the larger part of school ti'/ie, such of 
U8 as retained the naps were accustomed to play "hunt for 
placej*' on them. This was a standing gfme for yeare., and to 
thia I an indebted for all the knowledge of geocrapl-y that 
I brou;rht away from school, although whenever I v/as detected 
in this forbidden exorcise I was severely punished," 



1, I^owlo: The licst T^ethod of Teaching Geography, In Lcct. 
i^eli vt^red ?e "c ^re the i^juuir, Xru-ti t, of I n otruct. , Au^ .1545, 
pp. 226-2r^7, "' 



-82- 

In 1852 in an article in Th e Conunon Sc hool Journal 
the saice writer gives us evidence to show that memorizing 
was also a part of the method of procedure, 

"When we were at school, thia branch of study was not 
introduced into the public schoola of Boston, The Astrononi- 
icftl and Geographical Catechiam of Caleb BinRham was com- 
mitted ti) memory but never exolaired, TMa -^rtr; a thin 
par37>hlet, and we learned it in a few weeVg, but it was the 
textbook for several years, and we said it throw;h, hundreds 
of tines, without looking at map or globe, and '7it>'.out see- 
ing ayjy illustrRtio' or e.xi^lariation, 

We then used the Abrid{;;er'ent of lIorsse'H Geofr'-^phy as 
a r e fid i ri£ "bo ok , ITo ICReonf? were ^tur^ied and no Kaps 

examined, The book contained a map of t,?ie ^-'emi spheres, and, 
we believe, one of the United St^^tes, but they were never 
used, and f^eneraliy torn out as incunbrri-nceB. One of our 
aKiusementB was to play hunt plscea on these laarr, ~.ne boy 
yutti?)'/ out a uaHie for the other to fird. This ^^a^s for- 
bidden by the tef.chey, but it w«« frequently/ attempted, and 
many is the b;,oir we received for pl-iyinf^ thia r.^.ine, althouf;h 
the only koowledf^e we ever ,^ot of /reogr^.phy at school was 
obtained in this way, Ve di i not ander3t^?.nd the reading, and 
yet we read tVie booJc through niary tintes during our school 
career-, ^•'■ 



1. ii'oiirle: Geography, In The Com. 3ch, .Tour, , Vol. 14, 1852, pp. 



-83- 

To what extent ia one justified in ascuming that 
the two quotations describe the methods of teaching during 
the two .iooades inmodiateiy preceding 1800 ao well aa during 
the years irwtsediately following? S'owle was not in school 
froin 1780 to ISOO, hecause he was not torn until 1795; ao 
we cannot say v<ith certainty that he haa described the netiiod 
of pfeesentinK geoi^raphical material 'before- 1800. Gr: the 
ether h-.ni, methodt- of teacliinn ciii:nge yc] y o^.oa kly , p.nd it 
is >iie;hly iniorctahle that there was tny meterial difference 
irj. procedure in 1790 and 1610, It will l>e shown later that 
(nei-r'orizi.[ig viras ■becomins *<;ore popular and that iuere reading 
was decreasing in popularity. Of course it is possible that 
the method of r.eniorizing was in ro^cue Lefore IBOO end tyiat 
the rnet}iod t'ivej^* moat attention hy i''ovrie displaced it oidy 
to be displaced again by niemoriaing, but. this is highly iiu- 
probable, We oanr.ot, however, be absolutely certain as 
to the wethod pursued be 'ore 1800, 

The second quotation from 'bwle is open to several 
interpretations. Just what is meant by tTie firnt sentence 
in the quotation is difficult to decide. He says that tnis 
branch of study was not introduced into the puh±ic sc>!Ools 
of Boston vfhcn he was at school, and trien he proceeds to 
tell how it v/as taught. It is possible that i'"ovle did not 
receive lii s education in the public schools, or it i";ay be 
that he did not include the material frop: Bingham's pamphlet 



-84- 

under the term geography. This reference to inemorizing Hhows 
that it WRH bocominc: popular. It seena to huve been used 
only with the auestion and answer materiel, however, and of 
course such material wes not suitable for mere readi np:. The 
fact that question and answer msteri."! wae published, however, 
shows that there was a demand for sor'ething which could giiT-ply 
be Tnemwrized, 

T^inp'hajn's Cntecliism was not the t^nly oo.'>>c rrorisi.^'ting 
of question and answer material sftSr 1795, During that 
year there was published a bock by i;iathaniel Dwi-^nt, entitled 
A Short Sljt_Cojfigre-^_Qri3i_Te 375/0 e)r of the Geogr;^phy of the V/orld, 
By Way of 7^a e3/o L3n and ..^ s-ffenr. The preface to the f irat 
edition of this hook, as repro.luned in the edition of 1002, 
giver. u?i ROiue i)?3ight i)ito Dwig'-ifa views on thotuachin/:: of 
geoftrpphy, Jle advances two ob.-jections to the geograp?'ie3 

then in uge. One ob,iectiori wfig t>;at they were *oo expensive 
and the second that they were liot of such a type as to to 
eanily cor.-prehended by small childrexi, Fe feeia tiiat he 
has solved the probleraa as shovn by the follo-^inj?: 

•*! think tbat both the objections are obviated in this 
treatise. The expense of Vain Loolc Lb ?o sspall thRt it Taay 
be easily afforded, and the forai of a catechisr" adi-iitB of its 
beinfr aiuoh rssore comprehensive and iuore easily understood 
by ohildron than any of the small geo^rt'phiea which liave 
beon hf3r3tofcpre designedfor theji, it will enable them vse- 



-35- 

fully to ii-iproYe 7r.nn2r hnurcj of their OMrly y9<5rs, which for 
want of gomething of thir' kind, arc entirely loat: "^ 

Althouph he atptefl that his purpone in orgnidninE hia 
book in the forin of a cptechicm ie to niHkt it norc easily 
understock, a second reason seeing to "b^e touched upou iu the 
last aentence of the quotation, vrowwere these chillri'ii 
"usefully to improve rrany ^I'jriri? of t^eir early yRjri", ty 
rifjrely reading over and over a li3t of quentioija witn tits 
answers printed "below thcci? This does uot appeur to "b'^ ti-iu 
rpopt reafsoi^ahle interpretation. Ho eefens to have tutenaed 
thst t}-'", c'dl.iron fshoul. d r-ii^'iaorize the anavrsra to tVia quet^tions. 

It was said ciclier in the chapter t^iat ar. effort would 
"be j.-iFde to 'ihow ttiat me-.jorlzing was incT^aulnp; in popularity, 
A quotation froii. v/iiiets' inore cieni^nta/ry t<--xt\vjok yubliahea 
in 18'?3, oervep the purpose admirably, T7illeta» "book waa 
"based on the plr?.n used by Goldsmth, an Fingli3h geography, 
arid v/iiletg frankly quotes from Guldsunith as to the proper 
met^ioi of using the book: 

"The proper node of Udin,? this little book to ao- 
vant'-v.fv3, will, it irs .apprehended, be to let f-.>:.e ;:upil co;;r:iit 
the whole of the f^'otu to a^e'cory, ax. the r^te, perhs.pa of 
one, tv;o or three a day, accordinf: to hiy c/^e and capacity; 
taking ca/e at the end of each, oection to r.ake hiM repe:-jt the 
whole of vfhat he har before learnt."*' 



1, D^Yi^'ht: A pho_rt but Cor^rehennivo ^yst. of Crco^r^ of the 

3, WiiletB: ,\n Kasy Grhaa. of Creog. 10th >:d. , Preface, pp. 11-12 



-86- 

The quotation is taken frori the edition putlished 
in 1B23, "but, from the foot that it -vras merely copied from 
Goldsirdth, BBfins also to have "been ircluded in the fir^t 
edition in 1814, Here we have nemorization at the heif-^ht 
of its popularity. The writer of a book deliherately 
recoirjnends that the children merorize ?ill t}\p f^ctT ir « 
whole book, a few nt a tine. Each tine the c'-ild recited 
nexp factB he was to repeat thoae whio^ Ye h-^A lef^rned pre- 
vioT.(^ly, 

Morse and Forae in the twenty-third edition cf a hook 
puhiiahed in 1823 are r:?ii(^htly less positive hut p:o to eren 
gr(iater extremes in eugf:ei3tin{' spscific devicea to aid the 
memory. In tho prafnce we find the follo\?irjg: 

'•Another inode of aiding the nornory ia by nv ingenious 
comhination of the initials -f r^iraeu, Vho wrd VI3UY0R con- 
tains the initials of the seven primery colours, in the order 
in w^'ich they appear in the rrjinbow. Tills method nay in 
sojne innt.vnces be riuccesi'.fully apjplied to aeotjr-'phy. ,?or 
exanplc: the tliree large to^vns, Boston, .'Xlbany and i;etroit 
aro YiQP.r the aaiue parallel o" latitude, and the initials 
sipell PAD. flontrnal, .Ubany and Vavr Yoi^lc ere near the 
aame meridian, ^^mi the initials spell KAU. Tliese six towns, 
taken together, forLn a croas, on u}ii c}-i BAD M.'^Ij is extended. 



-87- 

Expedienta of this kind may "be profitirule in ,?ome CRses, yet 
if they are pursued very far they wili bacoiiiQ perilous, and 
rather 'burdensontie than useful. The same rer.arks are 
applicable to rhymes. 

Tliere are varioun other raethods of aldinio- the nemary, 
but the noat valuable, where the subject, adr'its of then, 
are clasaificatioi" and a lucid order, The.iCi are the n.^tlioda 
adopted in all the aciences. They are the metliods t>je memory 
loves, and wnich make the acquisition of 'kinowledgQ easy and 
deli t^ht fill.**-'' 

Cummings in 1823 says that "when two or three particulars 
have been anomi or explained, the learnere ahould be iinrnediately 
required to ejive tiiem; and the questions and answers should 
be repeated so often and in so quick sucoeasion, that it 
will appear aljaoat like trifling; and not loore then two, three, 
or four ne.f questicna should be asked before the^ be put 

with proviuuts oriey, always observing to astc those most fre- 

2 

queatly, which appear most difficult to be remembered.'* 

>;''either was map study exei-pt fron; neu-orizatior. It 
h&s been aaid in an earlier chapter th'?t ear ^y in the nine- 
teenth century there was introduced the custotn of publishing 
separate atlasea with the geo'irapriie.-;. The quotatir^na from 
Fowle aif30 ahov.' that praotioally no use wea made of the two 



1, Horse and i^orae: A he\7 ^3 ^st. of Geog, , A nc.and Jiod , , 24d Ed,, 

Preface, p, IV. " ' 

3 . GumTf d ng 3 : to Intr oduc t. _to_^ Anc. and ' I'od. Cr eof*. ,9th Ed,, 

Preface, p. VI, 



-SB- 
maps in Horge'n "book early in the century. The atlaa pub- 
lished with .billets* hook oontaineci seven inapy, ./illets 
advocatea having the child, answer in writing the questi-^na 
baaed on the maps and alao having hira gpend half an hour 
each day reading the naraea of places in the vocabulary in the 
back of the booV: and finding the places on the raapa.i CuniLiings 
laaken an Interenting !iug,;;©stim aa to the proper way uo have 
«he child study the latitude of piacea. lie v/ouli tell the 
child that latitude nean.i nide and that a place in north 
latitude i :t on the north rside of the equator and one in south 
latitude ira on the south Bide of the equator? 

T'fap drawing; did not hecone cnvnr'ion during the first 
two deoRdeg of the century although a nurr.ber of atlases were 
in use before 1B??0, It -vns the custom to merely rr.emorize these 
maps by findinp- places repro-sented on them and by anstrering 
questions in the textbooks taaed on the maps. In 1821 -""owle 
introduced an innovation in the Monitorial 3cbool in Boston 
as is Rjicvn 'iry the following: 

"iaoon after we left school Cuinr.ing.3' Geography and Kaps 
oane into gener^il m^h, but as the r.apa -A^ere examined slightly, 
and no attenpt wan nade to fix t'cir outlines in the nind, the 
lessons 'vere soon forgotten. !le never a<nf a map drawn in 
any of the public schools of Jioston, till we intro iuced the 



1, Willets. Preface, pp. 11-12. 

2, Oumnijig'^, Preface, p. X^f, 



-B9- 

exercise in 1821, Occasionally a map had been drawri in come 
of the privr::.te schools, Lut it wss done for sliow, for 
exhibition, and never vvae a con-n.on exercise until we made 
It 30. "Je. contiMued the practice twenty years, hut it waa 
nrmy years "before Vap Drawing was intro 3uced into any other 
puhlic gohool, and we auspect that even now, very little is 
:^,or.e at it.""^ 

In thJLa achool ]?'o>^le undoubtedly developed rnuvp rirawing 
far heyoud ariything we knov novr. With ,;owlo imp dra'ffing waa 
an art. In 1B60 Gedeon Thayer, principal of th« chcuncey- 
Hall ochonl in j^oaton, ^apeeka of "^ov/le'a sn]-(Ool having been 
f:?mou3 for the beautiful wap oolorin^j, printing and cbirography 
(3on<3 "by the pupila, (-realer emphasis v.as placed on this 
phanc of n/ap dravifing acout liiob vi^ien it ■/•■hh cuatoruary to 3end 
ppeciinena to e:4hibit3 at fains in tne larger cities, 

Eofore proceeaing vdti th'3 later changea in nethod it 
may be well to sum up at thin point tho trend of procedure 
up until ahout 1S25 or 1850, \'e havel reason to believe tnat 
befora inOG the geoi^raphy texts ^^ere usually used merely as 
readera, hut we have no abaolute proof of the truth, of a 
st-tcrrient that such was the case. Memorising was also ^^ain- 
in;=r ^ fo'ithold. By 1810 it was the comujon custori to use 
Ifonc'T "jook as a reader and to .neir.orifie the quejtiun and 



1, •^o-7le: Geography. In the Co la. ^ch . Jour. 1852, p. 324. 

2, ""heyer: Letters to 'a I'oung" Teacher, In "[e nrv I ar jiard ' s 
Anor. Tour, of lid., Vol. 8, 1860, p. 34. 



-90- 

answer material in Bin.cchara's CGte c'iiiatm. raps were uie>l 
pr?,ctically rot at all "before 1810, "but during the next 
decp-de they c^me to be used ratv<er comnonly in locating 
plsces and anawerinc; qneations in th'? textbooks. 'Powle in 
1821 introduced mep drawlnf?:, but it did not beco'^e common 
for a nutiber of yeera after that d?te. The inet>-.od of alrr'oat 
absolute rneftioriaati on of factrs Tvns charaoteri Stic of the 
years fron 1815 to 1830. 

After 1830 the subjects of raaps, wap drawi nr, s^nd 
t37.e interpretation of maps were piuch lUnnuaoed. One of tlie 
early reformers is W, G. v/oodbri dgje. In an article in /orie riCRn 
Annal 3 o^ J^i'duQRt i on and X'^ '^.*J!}'£* l2Il ^" 1834 Mr, i7oodb ridge 
shows that he was conniderally in sdv^nce of the cjther 
geo,'^r=?T)hers of the day aa fsr as the quention of maps wa.B 
concerned, Tfewtion has been made in an earlier cJaoter of 
his idea a, but his in Quence raB oT such irportance ?o to 
merit even further conniderati -^n. fTi= ideaa are best ^.re- 
pressed in hi 3 o'vn ^vorda: 

""'he pupil mufst therefore be flrr^t prspf:red to lAnder- 
stand the true nature of a nap, as a rainiature representation 
of the jnere outlines? of objects, on tlte eartVi, He iuuBt learn 
to conceive of a sheet of paper, aa containing r ounti^inr., 
rivers, and lcingdor,i3, to realize the isperfections of the 
representation, and to use it only as an ai li to his imagina- 
tion, ""^ 



1, "A'oodlb ridge: IslQKentary Iiustruction in Geography, In . Axner. 
An n air ,, of Ed. , Vol, 4, 18:54, p. 115, 



I 



-91- 



On the next page in the same article he aayg, 

"nut let ur.aak again - ia it tru.i line? and t^tjotq of a 
ranp, or the gre-^t objects they roprsaent, w>iii-;h tue yupil 
i:3 tn learn? If the latter, in v/hat way in he to effect it? 
By KTiaing at tUeae mystical marka, and cormittiug to meinary 
811 the naiaen attached tc theiu? 'Ye 'ave no patience vith 
those who thus teach their pvipils a science, whioh rnny "be 
C'flle:^ '"hartology, out has no ;aOre title to the nane of 
Geography, than the giving names to an equ-il nur,l-,ej- of 
Chinese chf-iraotor ;3. '•" 

Wrt then deaeri'bes a method of having the child r.ake 
a plan or nap o.' ''ia d<sak, rooHi, piaygroun-i, anu y*ie larii';fir 
surrounding diatricts. T]:i3 is to be nortinued until the 
child is v'^'l^'i foi,;iliar v,lfa these aiuall TOsps and can i-ake 
them on any '}a iired 3caj.e. '-2 i? trbe tau^-ht the ur.<'. o." the 
scale uiitii he can i nine diet el y realize from a p-lance at it 
the '-.a? nitudo of the objects reprcsnnted hjr hia fiap, 

ifap drav/ing increased in pownlwrity airinr;'- the a<ixt 
tvi/o iecadea, l?o-.vie in 1846 favored the Hane procedure as 
I'oodhridf^e i n Icarnin.i; to draw inaps/' The c>-ild ia to Tcegin 
^d th hid oftn iTr!;,;edi.:'t8lrj(^ neir;hbor"iood -nd to dra.v --.aos of 
the re^'ion, locating rivers, town-T, ind other feaiuref^ of 



1. Ihid, p. 116, 

3. Xann: aeogr^^phy. In The Co m. 3ch. Jour. Vol. 8, 1^46, 
-.J. 33-41. ISxt r i-c t a'Troi'T" a lecture by "]?oVie, 



I 



-92- 

int^^rest. Tie is then to draw mapa of his county, at te, 
of the United States, and of each country in the world 
aeparpitely. Later he is to learn to draw tl-e countrieT or 
states in groups, i^owle exprer.sed these i ieas in a lecture, 
part of which vraa p'jtliahed in The Com ri on Sch oq l Jour nal in 
1646. Horace Mann, at that time editor of that journal, 
supports Powle very forcibly in the foliowinji' note '"^hich 
is nuDliQhed W-th i^ovvle'e ad'lrees; 

»'Ail that Oerriosthenea ciaiiued for action, m delivery, 
map drawin;'. i3, ir th« ytudy of geography. If there i rj s. 
blackboard i^j the schoolroom, let the classes ut' it; let 
them keep it at work, Tf there ia no blackboard, let one 
be providRd fcrthv?it>i. In default of ^roo.iriri.-; one, let 
them usn a glate; use paper; use the wnlla of the schoclroom; 
use the floor; use the outside of the schoui-house. If nothing 
else car- be used take charcoal pno. dravr map!> or ■^he plaist.ering, 
till it is >-lPPV'enP<^-, and th^n tyke chalk, and -v^Jten the 
charcoal, and so alternately. Draw n;eps, or oomething, some- 
whore."-^ 

A -very interestinp; device for ntxidyinr latitude nnd 
longitude ia sugpesteti jn the aarrse article, '^he child was 
to imagine hiinself suspended in t}'<: air with the eart)-; 
rotating below him while he remained stationary. He T?an to 



1. Ibid, p. o9. 



-93- 

iraap;ine himself atove a certain parallel and was to name 
the cities on the parallel passing under him. The racing 
of trade routes was also mentioned as a device to be used 
in map study, and the computation of the tine of day in 
various places was a third, 

Tliayer in 1860 advocates teaching a fe^v facts about 
the iTse pf the fjlobo to tha school as a -.T^-ole and thf^n teaching 
the definitions of such phynioal features as islands, bays, 
capeg, rivers, peninsulas, etc, '''he child 77aa to learn 
to draw theTe vr^riou^! feelure'^ and then tako up .mape draw- 
in/7. He deBcrihe^ the sarrie Tnet'iod of procedure a3 is aescribed 
by Voodbridjre and '^owle, berijinning with the neii^hborhood, 
then dr-^win,<? cn'jntiei, staters, countries separately and 
finally drawing- then in groups. ./e find aoiae hirita of a 
chanG;e l^i a few of his sugfjestioriS. ?j'or example, h(. says 
that the teacher sbo^ilri fjive reasoni^i for atrilcing thin,;s shoym 
by the map sue!-' rs tJie small number of rivers in a re^io*!. 
and should explain the relation betvyeor; the various 5?:ones and 
the anirtal and ve.-^etable life v/ithin their borders. He 
mentions th^; use of "raised maps or Tf',-;p-3 i!i relief". 

In connection with the to-ac of maps there is one 
other item which certTinly metits conaidoration, "^he use 
of outline maps rvas intensely popular from 1840 to 185 
or 1855, Advertisements of Kit>ioell'3 Outline ilapv=i are com~ 

1, ?>tayer: OT).cit. pp. 81-91 



-94- 

mon in the journals of th?t period and they are often men- 
tioned in reports made "by State Superintendents of Public 
Instruction, i^apecially is this true inthe New York Reports. 
In one of theie reports there is published a report nade 
ty a county superintendent in which he describea the proper 
raethoi of using the outline naps: 

"i.et every ao'-iolar vino can read be nuppiied "i ■•>. a 
'key to the maps'. In addition to this, I v/ouid say that 
every scholar in sc'-ool shoulc) be {.iloiired a >3late. In the 
iriorninri ^oon after the coiriinenceiiient of the school, let the 
teacher nxve c\it the rfKography lesson for tlie d^^y, .ind sus- 
pend the r^ap before the school. Suppoae the Icason to "be 
a geogrsphicrl description of ?r---nco. Let thp r-iRp of 'France 
be hung nut before them, 7^ov/ let every acihol^r in school 
sketch upon their al?.te3 the outline of thrt country, ea 
nearly accurate as tliey are .?>ble to io, Rea.bixs their' toraark 
down the boundaries upon their slates, and trice the principal 
riverQ, laount-^ina, ,'-:>ilfs, baya, fee, and nark down the 
char-jcter3 for the ])rincipal cities, towns and viilageu. 
They meiy now turn to the V:fcy and ascertain their nanes, 
and mark them also upon the slate, Half an hour may be 
spent iv the i,'-orning in t"-l?. manner by bepinnero, (le^s tine 
will be required for advancad scholars) when thv-^ le33Gi-i may 
be suspended till the afternoon, A review of a fe^ minutes 
in the after part of the day will prepare their, for reci+.ing 



I 



-95- 

the lesson correctly; and vihcn the hour for recitation arrives, 
require uvery sc^iolar to suspend all oMier atutiieo and 
give their attention. Be oure and let the scV.ols.rs "be 
aeated, ao that all inay have a fslr vier of the maps. The 
teacher then with a rod, ^30Ine three or four feet in length, 
points to the map and asks the follcving, %lth other questions; 
'"iThat country does tViat represent?' The ocViOol in 'joucsrt 
ann^/er , ♦ 1?T inc e ' . '" 

There follow a lonp, s*^"ies of que-stiona as to 
boundaries, inountriinB, hayn, riveru, citlesa, and a'';h<-r features 
rei)reRent«d en PuupB, 

DoGfi the knowledf^e of her then© outline napo wero \;3ed 
give us a hetter vievs" aa tc wlrere the emphu^csi.'j was hoinfi 
placed? The v^riter bolieveG it doer). It Ghoivc that pltce 
geography was receiving a very great de;ii of attention. The 
emphasis was on the location of .places. There -wda little 
effort to shov/ the relation between cliifif:tc and noil o,i the 
one hand and producta on the other, aa hae already heers shown 
in a previous chapter dealing rfith texthooka. The child 
used ■-'ia metnoTy rathor than hi a roagoninrr po\"ers. This is 
well illustrated by a nULiher of cjuentiunn arslced hy the 
visitors in the Boston schools in 1845, iv few unseleoted 
quantiona from the list are as followo: 



1, Young: AJjrn. JIe|)' t . of the Supt, of Com. ;>chH, ,]iew YoVk State, 
1B45, p. 2^7.' '■ " ' " 



I 



-96- 

"19, On «rV,.ich riinj^e of I'jDUnt.-iina is the line of per- 
petual snow moat elevated above the ocean, on the Rocky 
Mountains oi" l^orth Amerio.i, or the Cordilleras of "exico? 

20, The oity of rcyico is in 20O of M. latitude; 

the oity of Eew Orleans is in 30o of M, latitude, vVhich has 
the warmest cliniate? 

21, Kuin'? the rivt,3-3, ijuifti, oceana, weab £.na. str .its, 
through which a veaaei luuat paao in going froi^i x'ittsburg 

in Pennsylvania to Vienna in Austria, 

22, On vvhici) bank of the Ohio in Cinci)i)iati , on thti 
right or left? 

21"), '.Vhat are the principal natural and artificial 
productions of ITew }?ngland? 

24, Over what continents and islands ioea the lir.-? 
of the equator pass? 

25, VVhat parts of the f-;lobe have tii£ lont;:c:t o da^ s? 

26, If a merchant in idoacow dines at o o'cloci: r.iu, 
and a merchant in Boston at 2 o'clock, which dine a first-? 

2V , Utitae the countries wj-iich lie arounw the * editerranean 
Sea, 

2d, ,Vhac CO untried lie; around the luacl-; iieaV^ 
Of the ten questions five, i;o. 2i,2:j,24,<^7 , and P,'3 
are strictly place geography queationj, one, L'o. 2'6t involves 
only raernory, and the other four require only a 3lit;>it atitjunt 



1, Bo st on _ 'ic ho ox Rep or 1 3 ,^ 134 j. 



i 



-97- 

of reaaoning. The inerabera of the coimnittee saw the weakness, 
however, snd criticized the achoola in th'? folio^Tin;-': terias; 

"The verbal examixiatinn which followed in geography 
confimed the opinion which would lae irawn fror the answers 
to the printed questions. In a few schools the children seem 
to have heen tau'^ht or-Hy, and upon correct principle;?; but 
gener;illy they were taktin out of the conraon routine of cjue^tions. 
They could hovmd states end countries; narae capit^.ls, caj>e9, 
and mountains; enumerate rivers, lakes, and haya; and answer 
a series of question 3 put by the roaster, of ha:lf an notir's 
duration; but, questioried as to t}ie drainage of countries, their 
capacities for coirjnarce, the causes which airect streams and 
determine the force of the water,- their want of corriprehension 
oi* these and similar suhjectcr-, showed plainly, , in a-lnost every 
school, that they had learned geography as if it were oiilv a 
catalogue of names of all the divisions of water, frc^nponds 
up to oceans; of land, frora towns to anpires.""^ 

Later in the same report we find a still nore adverse 
criticism, 

"laome of our sciioiars could coEimence with ; aine, and 
name every river runriing into the oce«n, without misfjing a 
navigable ntreain; but if you ask them why the l^ississippi 
flows southvrard with slugfjish current, and unvaryin.T width 
for a thousand miles, while the northern waters run in a 

!• Ibi'"., p. 11. 



-98- 

different direction, spread out into ynst expansea, rush 
through narrow paai^afj and over ataep precipices, to seek 
the ocean throuF^h the St. Lawrence,- if aisked, we aay, the 
reasons for rsuch phenomena, they vyill stand in mute amaze- 
laen^, and their mastera will perhapa complain of fHe unvronted 
seyerity of the exnrainatlona, " 

Such critici siaa were; untioubtedly iTieri tei, '"or f/.e 
que?3tion3 presented hy the 'A^riter ahors conti:in more questions 
demandinfr po',7er to ryaaon th-ip do any other ten conjecuoiTe 
qtieatiorjf? i^- th'' ertirr? lir't, Asion^ the ot'ic-r^ \ve fird ?aore 
oue3tic^n3 deaiin{j with plsce iKeogr-.p^'^j*, There v/ere a nujriber 
of questions asifir,? tho directicn of thPcoi;,rsec of rivers. 
These aeem to have cnufjed a great de^.l of trouTlfr. it ia 
clear th?,t the puoiis vore entirely frrcilier ii^ith only the 
11 8t"? o-f itena that tlM?y co'iLd repeat froi:; neinory and the 
places v'.-i'i.ch t Y'^y oouli loc-:.te oi\ maps, 

Boston WH.? r;ot differ^vnt fron other placea in this 
particular oaae, Cne coMntiy superintendent in rexv "'orlr ^jtate 
says that in X84i3 "it hac lorj.^ heen the practice to put a 
eeopr;?phy and atlas early into the V-nds of young pupils, and 
to require them to learn 'all the course print the firHt tiiae 
throup:h' in the geogr-phy, a/ii to search the naps for all 
answers to t^>e quentln.a laid down ir; the book -dthout at 
all bavinp any correct notions as to the s^h-ipe or forv.< of the 



1, Ihid, pp. 24- '^5. 



-99- 



earth, or the laws '<7>'ich govern it, in itB revolutions, or 
scarcely jiny of the fii'at prinoipieo of the science, "^ A 
aeoond county superintendent in tha same state growa 
aarcHstio and eaya that he has heard several clauses in 
geoKr'^phy oound atate/^ and nountiea v'ith a. coriiiidcraolt: degree 
of HOcurHoy, w>ien none of thorn 3ould point to the north, 
south, eaat, or wesit. He adds, 

"Indeed, p. wortion of thf^ir; ncra not av?yr(,' that these 
tnrriis relate to tne four cardinal point.y of tiie cojapasy, 
Still moro; <7orv; of tJu-rfi e.-iy th.ut •fjeo/.^raphy i b a description 
of the eart}i • , hu^ .lo )\nt krn\i iiq they ever nnv tiio earth,, 
They hayn no ide? t}j>t t}xfjy live u ?on i1:."'' 

■Thin diso-asioio)- of Taet'tod? o-^ proacntxng material and 
the sort of ruatf^'i?;! preaerited iurinr, the :.an-L >:oc.;dn in 
the first ^alf of the century prew out of the Jiscuasicri of 
the use of cicline mnps, it w'i'.I hf^ recalled. Iv';.'tur;?lly one 
aaks if thi-.^ pnrj. r>.,l of '•f-r/iri'^i^r '-r.d. fact j.n.vrninK i ■'- con- 
tinttou.s ■si\,'-\ '•.:-.'■! ear.Ly perio';' di.'jouased in the first part 
of t}Te Gi.?.Tjter« "I'u-s tliere no hrea}- betvreen the tv. o? A 
fev? exa;iples serve to ?' ov t:h;;t thci*e was n-o r,i;ci'' treak. 
In 1827 ?An aiaor^ymouis vrriter Ir 'fy-e ;\jr:ericg. n .T ourric;! o f Hlduca- 
tioin^ writer tliut 

'^A hock cont-.ining a concinc xi.r.t of toAns, rivr.rs, 



1, Young: \nn, ^Hep ' t of ,.3upt.^ of Co m. 5 3 cha . , Few fork 'Jt -te, 
1845, \-)p. r-iOb-POf'I 

2, i Liu, 184.:., p. 21. 



-100- 

end mountPirjB, tosrpther with a o'jr.'.ensed account of the com- 
merce, profluctior.is, end clinfyte of various countries, is 
placed, in the h.?-nfls of the pupil; and cy, unconscious of 
&ny other merner of 'becorrtlnfr acquainted with i\ , corjr.erce?? the 
Bame toileotne, tedious efforts to coi^itnit pri^^e .-^fter p.'^.'^e, to 
woTnory, "' 

In lf^i2 sn otserver ir. th<? oorr.'ron 5choc>lP of Coa^octicut 
writes that children might be found who >'.ad c:>!^ iT.it ted tr. n?raory 
their f^r'^TriTpar , thpiir .fteof^rpipi-ty and the ir'.tro;lucti en to the 
spellin?: booic, hf?if a doser. tlraen e-:ch, and vj-io yet vtre r:0 
wiser for prfictlopl T>t.'rt>oReK thnn 'before.''' Gr?mir.ar and 
geOf'^rar/h^'' were cria to be oopiritted to nemory rather thsn 
taught. ^ 

Trtufii it c-AT, be ;"een tvat thlfi fft'.'-orite method of learn- 
ing the fr-cts of p;ooe'f'>?T)h;'" hPd iict been diaoarded. 'During 
the Tierlori when out'iin*^ WRpfi were in vosue the .vsteriF^l rt.em- 
orizeA r??P different th^r in the esrlier period, but th.^.t -jfas 
the ntoRt 3ifni^io?nt p^-rt of the chsnpe, A. ne^; wsy of using 
the pupil's tine hai been discovered. A.t sn earlier drte 
he had mo^orir.ed his textbook. STow he (>'fer-ori''.ed b^re foots 
presented by Tne??.n:=: of r>. r*jap. 

But had tho*'-'' been no adv-'?nce? '.7e have -Jlready 9hosm 
that '^'oodbrldge' f5 ider.3 about nfips 'vore a decided advance 
over Mirhgt had preceded, and r^n effort wi.Ll be rriade to show 



1, /uio.T, 0, o:uiV. on >;; ■i;''^ C/"*- ^^.'-'tj. Pr c vJ-an t ;)efacti3 and Pruponed 
Rene die's. ~ In " Arft er . Jo ur . " "o f liid. ""lFo 1". *2 ,""182'?'", pT'lbP-ieO . 

2, An Obnorver." Cci ^i-.jq n "■■jc'iord'n o /* "n n e o t i cu t . In .''jrinr.^ . ^uals 
of Ed. \Aol. 2riB32, p. "2477 

3, Ibid, n. 'MB. 



-101- 

th«?t prygresa was feeing made along other lines as well. 
The outlirf r^R'P'^ were oorti-ir.ly cr> ir:^TOvev..cnt as a ..ethod 
of oouducting f^rlll work in place ^-eogrf-phj', "but their use 
wp.g orerdone. Too r.iuch attention ws.8 ijlveti to wer<s place 
gtfOirrfphy. ii^on It'SC to ie50 the hlrckboard wqs r'ncther 
item of tipperRtuH -sirhinTi plf.'yed nn iKport?:nt part in tVio 
■^rc^'rena rtndf^ in ter;.ohinf; ^;«o^rf.phy as r-.ip-ht he inferroci by 
the qxiotat j (.>n on r>cp-druv/ini.; fro.a ''Tor'ice Iliinn. "''.-.ro ugh cut 
the'je t^?o decides VQ find r/my ndvertisenont:' o*^ "hlnclc- 
Irosrcia In the mohool jonrn''l3, end Rtcjte 'jv^^O'-iritcndcrtn 
often i*econn:(5nd the Ufje oJ" hlaclcho^-'rd'S iu cinncot..;. ur; ,-.'ith 
p.rithimytj. c and KeofTT'^ph^r, enpecio?.ly th^j Intter. In «n itein 
in "-fhe 0(mnectic.ut_Cowrf!on ^c>lool_Journr.l__for in?9 \5-e fir-d 
that tho to-ri of Leoni.n-ster haa 3'eportod "puttioK in olack- 
hoard? -^o t'-'.'^t i^upiln n?.y ^'<^ requirod to drcvv •-.ap3 laore 
often. "■'■ iTTj^roT'Sd n;'.o*bO'i; w<^rre ^^Iso advex'ti."!ed oxtcunY-jly 
p.n<^ g minher of leotnrr^. sr.'). -jrticie? on their us': as"e to 
he ""ovn-i iii th"? .lournsls of the tipit;!, 

irtielcf! in thf» school journals '^rove that prorrt'ea 
TVMQ heinp jBftde ^n more wsys thsn ip the irtroducti "in i-)f ne-r 
ppparstus. In a review of a textbook in the .\ rnericnn ,■ o;zrnal 
of Kduc ^'tior .".rd T n-^^truction in 1026 the editor says, 

•'It is prnfifyinc to ol.piprvw in r.odern schoclhooks 



1, A.btstr&ct of the I'aasaohuaetts 3chooi Return.-;. In H onn. C om. 

3c h. - f-inr, , Vol. II, 1&59, p. IGx. 
^, TleTOin';: The Tjge of niohea in Teachirs-^ Gso<?rai>hy and 

Astro-.i'niir, In Lect. 3e.! :'orf-- .^r.;:r. In^so:. tute of Int^tr uct., 
Boston, 1841, p^.l£3-18r~. 



-102- 

on geography that authors nnd teachers are abandoning the 
useless and inconsistent method of conducting a child to the 
centre of the aystero, for his first lesson in a science 
which professes to be a description of the earth. We 
wish this rational spirit of irt'provement "were permitted 
to find its way into the study of geography as now pursued, 
and abolish the unmeaning practice of commencing with the 
form and coinpositi on of 'the terraqueous globe', inctead 
of with that portion of the earth's surface which fells 
under tine young learner's daily notice -, 

We confess that we should like to see the met>iod 
of alternate printed question and answer abandoned, and re- 
course wore generally had to the 3i«?)le form of consecutive 
paragraphs, to be enlivened by the oral ejcplanations and 
questions of the teacher. That is the most efficient kind 
of instruction in w'"^ ich the manual furnished by the author 
is used Merely as a book of outlines to be filled up by the 
teacher's own mind. The writer of a school book should not 
go before the instructor, and, by a limited nvimber of 
questions, preclude a wide range of thought, on the part 
of the pupil.""'' 

This is merely the beginning of a determined camijaign 
for better geogr-phy teaching. in 1830 Lemuel 3hattuck 



1. Reviews of textbooks. Amer. ^ Jp"^« °^ ^4* '^°1« I» 1826, p. 176, 



-103- 

writea that the child ahoxild get his beginnings in geography 
by beinp: s'lown a plan of his own dwelling house. He advocates 
beginning the study of geography with one's o\m neighborhood 
and condeinns the practice of requiring a child to begin with 
the definitions of astronomical and geographical terms, •*■ Tfe 
advocsten the use of blackboarda and paper for maps and 
plans. The idea of beginning with the hoae seems to have 
taken a strong grip on the writers of the ticie. One anojiymous 
writer in The Common 3chpol Journal in 1842 suggests calling 
the attention of a two-year-aid child to the arrangement 
of the rooms in his home and teachiiig it which directijn is 
east, we-Tt, north, or aouth. The child vas to te tausi^h- to 
tell the parent in which room was the stove, the clock, or 
ether article of furniture, IJext it was to learn the 

geography of the surrounding fields and was to learn to locate 

2 
trees, woods, stones, etc. In the sartie journal for t}ie 

preceding year we find a series of nineteen articles purport- 
ing to have been written by an experier.ced te;.c},er in a 
large systeir. in a series of letters to a young girl just 

about to begin teaching geography. Again the erriphasi:3 is 

3 

placed on beginning with the c}!ild'8 iramBdi',te aurroundings, 

Horace !«'ann expressed similar ideas in t' is conxiectioji, f{e 
makes a good point when he oriticizes severely the textbook 



1* Shattuck: Improveuent in Our Gorm-xOii ochooia. In jiTier. Annals 
of Ed ,. Vol. I, 1830, p. 138. 

2, Anon, Be^inninf: to Teacli Geograp>iy, In The Jora. uOi, Journal , 
Vol. 4, 184?., p. ?,C>2. 

3, Letters ,?rom a Teacher to her Young Female j"riend. Just About 
OonunencinF; to Keep )C>iool, In '"he Cora. 3ch. Tour. Vol. 3, 1841, 



-104- 



' writers for treating the nsturai features of the earth under 

the head of ciTil or political diviaiana andthua breaking 

1 

the natural units into artificial parts, 

7roiTi 1849 until 1852 7/illiam ^owle was editor of 
The Common 3chool Journal , It is natural to expect aomethi ng 
new and orip;inal from this old geographer, and he doesn't 
disappoint. It was just previous to this time that 3ir 
John 'iTri-Jnlciin tried in vain to find a Horthwedt Passage, 

"H^owle prints in his iournal the story of hi3 loss and also 

2 

the story of other earlier efforts to find the sane paaaage, 

clippinp-a 
He putliahea/froffi newspapers telling of the efforts of 

searching parti ea to find Tranklin, of the first voyage of 
a whaler from BerinI; Sea into the ,\rtic, of the efforts to 
find both north and south polen, and of other explorations. 
With each of these little article;? there is a recomTTidndation 
that it be used as the baais for a geography lesson dealing 
with thena little-known regions, Powle apparently recog- 
nized the value of motivation. 

In a series of articles under the title of p imn * 8 
3ch ool Tea ch er » g Fan ug.l in the Oonnecti cut Corn:".or) School 
J our na l for 1339 there is a gre.^t deal of material dealing 
with methods of teaching. One of the articles deal a with 



1 . Ifann : Fifth nnn. Rep ' t_ o f^ Se c . _ of Bo ar d of Ed., 1642, p, 46, 

2. In .?b£ Goto. Sch. Tnur', Vprjll, 1S49', ppV"oV7-379. 

3. Ihii, Vol, 13, 1851, up. 133-137, 330, 



-105- 

geof»r8phy teaching and calls for training of the cViild in 
observation. He is to learn the name of every object of 
import -^nce which he sees and ia 'o be taught to observe 
objects froi.i various point?^ of view, and is to have pointed 
out tc him t^)e varying poaitiona of the sun. The writer 
in defending' his position says that what he advocates ia 
not mere thf^ory but t'-iat it "has been done, and still is 
done, in the schools of Pestilozzi and his fcTlO'^ers in 
■Europe," 

H^re we hnve a direct referance to the mettiods of 
PeFjtnlozzi, Other articles also show traces of his influence, 
BernaB flBfirs, Secretary of t>ie State Board of I'ducat ■ on for 
Masaachuuetts in iSn^J rirrites in hio F iftee n th Annua l peport , 

"In geography, as taught in the schools, there i^ 
^r-'^at Ci'^nfusinn, arising psrtly from the w?.nt of clear views 
of what can and of what cannot be well tau.-ht to the young, 
end partly froti a want of correct ideas in respect to the 
order in whic>i the aever-^l f ;c'. s and principles of this 
course o.f atudy should be taught. The .;-reat iinportance 
attached to political geography and to statistics, for 
ehllir^n, 3hov/s that neither the nurture of the youthful mind, 
no- th'i -joir'prtriit-.ive utility of different parts of geography, 
nor the dependence of politicr.-l upon physical r^eography, has 



1, Dunn' 8 School Te;?cher's I'lanuai. In Conn. Coiu. 3ch. jour. . 
Vol. 2, 1839, p. 32. 



-106- 

"been duly considered. Has the child any comprehensiorj of 
the political intertsts and civil inatitutions of the rations 
of the earth? Can x.Ue study of them, in very early child- 
hood, "be Hnything hut a mere work of inerjory?" 

wlisther thin oa the ini'luence o:' jrestalozzi or of 
Hitter, it had its orirtin across the ocean. It waa rot a 
native iuilufmce tlict causred Sears thua to study the needs 
nnd capaoitieu of little children. Still another writer in 
K-i! r-ngrd';t A,merican ■Tou'-nfal of iCducabion in 1859 in ouoting 
trovi the inatructions of the school coT'imittee of V/altham, 
Faasachusetts shows the influence of Pestalozzi or Bosaibly 
of Ritter« The following is & portion of the quotation: 

"Take your e'iiildrer. occasiorally to vs.llc; go to the 
hills; shou them how the presence o-^ a brook or river can 
be foretold from the extent of a valley, the nature of the 
Kojl, end the kind, of vogetationsj, whether forests or grass; 
8}.ow ther; the roundness of the earth from the increasing dip 
of the i-;oriaon, as you ascend; make them perceive how beautiful 
t}>*^ iliUi^fi aii by which we alweyrs exag,'?erffte vertical heights 
au<i underestimate l^orizontel distsjices; call their attention 

to frte difference x\\ uoils and in the rocks, and point out 

2 

thfe effects of the soil and of the location upon vegetation," 

Here we >'avo tne ieataloz7.ian training in ohservr^tlon 



1, vSfifr?': Pift&f'TttV Ann. Rep't o f " ^'ho Sec, o f the Boa rd of iSd. , 
Haee!??chuFief t, Fi, 1"^'?, p. 65. 

2, Fill: "he Truo Order of iJtudiea, In liarnard's .toier.Jour. o f 
2d.. Vol. 7, 1359, p. S'.75. 



-107- 

and the emphasis upon phyaioal geography as in the school 
of Hitter, But why should we call this a foreicn influence? 
'ffhat reason have we for saying that geography teaching in 
America was affected >.y what went on in Europe? A quotation 
fron De Guimpb Peatelozai, TTis Life and 'fork ia strikingly 
similar to several of those which have just been presented, 
Pestalo25zi and Rousseau both believed in teaching froiTi nature, 
De Guiiaps says of his first lessons in geography, 

"The first elersentB of {?eo;?raphy were taught us from 
the land itself, "STe were first t;"^''<en. to a narrow valley not 
far from Yverdun, where the river Buron run:;. After tr.Hing 
a gf>ner:5l -riew of the valley, v7<? were trade to expmine the 
details, until we had obtained an exact and complete idea of 
it, Wo were then told to take some of the clay in beds on 
one siido of *he v?lley, ;:-nd fill the "bf'skets w^'ich we !-ad 
brouiiht for the purpose. On our return to the castle, ^ve 
took cur places at the long tables, and reoroduced in relief 
the valley -jye had .iuat studied, eac^T one doing the nn-^t ^vhich 
had been allotted to bin. In t>ie cnurne of the next few days, 
STiore walks and wore exploratiois, epch (\.p.y or hii'her /ground, 
and each time with a further extension of o^r 'vor'-. Oni.y 
when our relief was finished were we sVsorrn t^** ^ep, which lay 
this -mep.na «"« dt'^J not see till y^e rQve in a "io^ition to 
un der s t an d i t , •♦ -^ 



1, De Guinpa' Per.tc^ozai, t^ 9 tJife nriv^or^. ^y.^f/.. 



-108- 

The objection may be made that no instance has "been 
cited of work in clay or gand by i\inerioan geography toachers. 
This la true, but. w«3 were tha learners, and were not yet 
ready to accept all of the liluropean innovations, Tliat caine 
later, 'Y« do aeeti to >mve accepted Peatalozzi'a ideas as 
to observation, or perliaps we received tViern tkrougti Ritter, 
the pupil of PentRlozzi, and the great advocate of physical 
freorrraphy. But how did we ^et the ideaa of the European 
peof!;raphernV i-jeverfl persons appe^i-r to have been irifiuential 
ir introduoinfr TSuropean TwethodH and ideas in the teac>iiiig 
of f?eogr«phy, Araong theye are Calvin E, Btowe, iiorace i ann, 
and Victor Cruyot, otowe waa a 'Cincinnati man who viaited 
Prussia in 18^7 and submitted a report on the iruusiazi uchool 
SYster! zo the Ohio iegisdature after his return, li&nn 
visited a nixmber of .^iluropean countries xn 1843 and devoted 
a large part of his report to a deacriptiou of the iPruaoian 
schools, 

Stowe bringa to our attention the manner in which 
the Prussians rolsted tjie natural sciences, geography, and 
history in discussin^T the needs of man. The material was 
ao organized as to answer certiiin questions about tne needs 
of man and the satisfactior. of thoje needs, 

''(c) ^SHiere and how do loen find the means to supply 
their want.j, asvi make theruselves cojafortabie and happy in 
this life? 



-109- 

"^le vcRctfi'ble, the lainernl, and the aniraal kinfrdoma 
are here "broMi-^^ht to view, for materl ^l8; together with 
agriculture and maiiufMcturea, as the raeann of onnvorting 
these materitila to our une. Geography, with (special reference 
to the productions of countrioci, and t>ieir civil, 3iterary, 
and relif^ious inotitutiong; to-wH, their orfianization and 
eBiplovmenta, Geography is soneti'.ies t'^.u;';>it by "blanV- charts, 
to T7hich the stadcnt?? are reqtured to af:"ix tlu- ruA.it:-. o " 
the several countries, river.-., inountaim, principal to-"ii.3,&c. , 
and then st.-^.te th^j prolxiotiona and inati tutior)3 for which 
they ".re renar^faliie, SonietirueB the naiiies of countrie.3, rivers, 
&o. are ,:;::iven, and the pupil i'.: "squired to ooj-;3tr-.Jct 'in 
outlins chart of their localitiev:. 

In respect to all the alove points, the nntlve 
country i~ parti cilarly atuiiod; ito capabilitio-^, it- pro- 
ductions, its law3, it? institatiONS, its history, (xc, 
are investi/^.-vted, v«'ith especial reference to its ability 
of Bupplyin?; the phyaic.9.1, aoci'^l, and moral -r-^v •- ? of ihJ 
inhahitants. Under thia head the pupils .ire t&v<?ht to 
appreoiatc their native coiintry, to venerate and love its 
inatitutionvi, to underatfina what in neceot-ary tc tVteir per- 
fection, and to irahibe a spirit of pure and generous patriotism. 
It ls3 scp.rcelj' necesoa.-^-y to add, that all tb.a inntruotions 
under this fifth head io confined to the fundaraen tal and 
simplest prin(Sfc;ple'3 of the sever:.! br ittchen referred to,«l 



iV Bamaifd: 00(1^-^63 of In '^1 rue t?! on ir"~tKiC; Prii-ary .schools of 
f'ermauy. In '^gJTia.rd'g Amer. Jour, of ISd . , Vol. 8, p. 378-379, 

(juotationn from Stovfe • s arid T.ann'u r(.;pcrt;i. 



-110- 

The moat significant part of thia quotation appe-3rs 
to "be that in which reference ia made to ''"blank charts". 
Apparently theae Mank chart a are outline napa. We cannot 
say that there was any connection between the use of outline 
reaps in Prussia before 1840 and the great popularity of 
the s.^.me materials in the United states during the following 
decade, but ths mention of outline maps in otowe's report 
provides sorae grounds for suoh a belief. 

In 1843 Horace Mann, at tliat time Secretsry of tVie 
Board of Education of the State of yasaachUHetts, visited the 
schools of Prussia, Knpland, Scotland, and other European 
coiintries« Ji^ann seys of geography in the PrugFjisn Schools, 

"The practice seened to be uniform, however, of begirriing 
with objects perfectly fairdliar to the child; the school- 
houae with the H:"^ound3 around it, the }io:'ne wit.i its yard or 
gardens, an i the street leading froia the one to the other. 
]?irnt of all, the children were initiated into the ide^ of 
space, \ifitTiout which we can knov- no more of geor;r<Hphy tiian 
we can of history without ideas of tiiae, i r, Carl Ritte* 
of Berlin, probably the greatest geof^rapher ncr» living, 
expressed a decided opinion to r.e, tha':- this was tlie true 
mode of beg-inning. 

Children, toe, comnence this study very earl.v; 3oon 
after entering schoo:|.; but no notions are given then v;>iich 
they are not perfectly able to conprehend, reproduce, and 
express. 



-lli- 

I found geography taught almost wholly froin large 
HJapo suspended ag-^.inot the walls, and by delineations on 
the blacli-'board. And here, this skill of teachers and pupils 
in drawing did admirable service. The teaclier traced the 
outline of a county on the suspended map, or drew one upon 
the blaclfboard, accompanying the exhibition by an oral 
lectiire, and, at the next recitation, the x^upils \iere e7..)ected 
to repeat what they bad seen and heard. Arid, iii re(-ard to 
the natural divisions of the earth, or the political roindaries 
of coiintr-ieo, a pupil was not considerea an "oavino eivc any 
proof tVmt he had a correct image in iiis mind, until he could 
go to th« blackboard, and reproduce it rrui;i the ends of his 
fingera, I witnessed no lessoiio unctccoxipaidod oy these 
testa, '*^ 

Tliis part of I'ann's report appeared iiot only ir. Vne 
official pubii cation but also in Eartiard'a itfierioan Journal 
o f iS ducat i on in i860. It connects the Aiaerican ..iovenient to 
hfi^ln thi3 3tudy o f geography with the home rather definitely 
'>vith Ritcer's idea3 on that subject, fhe ideas of Patter 
nre identical with those expressed by American i-Titers. Map 
^•irawinfr ;ihowg the same popularity as in the American schools. 
According to feann the Prussian schools were further ar^v::nced 
than were our own in the methods of teaching t'^ograpJiy; so 
it v/oiiLd Beem that they had been acting as teacher ana we as 
pupil. 



1* Mann: '^eveactji ;\nn. Rep't of the :;ec. of the Board ox" £d. ,p.ll5 



-112- 

'»'he argument may be advanced thr.t If we yrerf^- so 
rendy to accept the ideas of iT.VLVpsBn tesohera we should not 
have been so willing to retrjin our old meti-od" of peinorization. 
The answer is that all of ISurope'a iieaa were rot of the 
type of those Just described, Pestalozzi , for exnrple, had 
some peculiar devicea for memorizing t?ie loontionq of places 
as evidevieed in an article in 3ar/i^rd ' i3 /j'erj.^crn .To urrial of 
E di-cation in 1859, ]:o device ever rt^cojimen ^ed by an Arierican 
^;eogrr-:pher could Veve derserved inuoh p;reatrr oonc'pr'rK'-' -^ no than 
that described in the following quot'o.tion: 

♦'Thus, for insoHnce, one of the wuhdi virions of Europe 
Is 'Jerfnany, Let t^ie child first b^coipe acquainted, boy.Tnd 
the power of forgetting them, with the aubdi vision;? of 
Gerciany into ten circles, So-v let th.6 n^neo of the cities 
of Germany be laid before hin in alp'fabet.i. c;! ord'^r , t;; be 
read; there bein*^, at the name of each city, the number of 
i/hfj circle xi> v.hic}i it lies. As soon, as >e can read these 
name!} of oitic-d fluently, let hi/a bo ^^o^7n }i.ow trie numbers 
annexed to 'ohom refer to the head above, and t}>e child 
will after a few iesaoiia be iioj.e to J-jc-rittt all the citi'^s 
of Ger/aany according.: to the hea-dd tlraa eet up above tlien. 
Let there be put Before him, for inatr>nce thie followinr n?mea 
of f'erman places jrith fi^^ures:- 



\ 



—113- 



Ac Chen 


8 


All en do rf 


5 


Altona 


10 


Aaien 


3 


Allersperg 


2 


Aitorf 


1 


Abendturjc: 


4 


Alachaucen 


3 


Altranatadt 


9 


Aberthan 


11 


Alaieben 


10 


Altwaaser 


13 


Aclcen 


10 


Altena 


8 


Alksrdiasen 


8 


Ai.-i^reraont 


3 


Altensn 


10 


Amberg 


2 


AlP- 


1 


Altenburg 


9 


AjabTP.Q 


1 


Allen'oach 


5 


Alteri"berg 


9 


ABcneburg 


6 



He may then read as foliowa: Accheri is in the 
WeBtphaiian circle, Abendberg is in ths j7rancoriian circle, 
Aac'ken in in the Lower osjcon circle; Ac.''^ 

Thia ia a case of pure memory and of a device orif;inated 
expressly a,3 an aid to the irerriory. Europe was I'ot yet 
clear of the i.ibthod of inejiorization; so, if we were Ifcii.-ning 
fron her, there was no reason why we sliould JiaYe been Tree 
frorr? this riethod, 

Phiilipt'. cites another channel t)irou{rh A'>;ich tl:*-; 

2 

methods of Hitter probably made themeelvon r«it in iUicrioa, 

He pives Arnold (ruyot nore credit for introducing Hitter's 
ideas and metiiods into t^^e school3 of t-.is coi-Citry tjian he 
itives to ^Torace Mann, Cuyot was a pupil of Ritttr'e *■:■ o 
came to this country in 1648, Pror 18A8 to 1854 he wca in 
the employ of the Kassaohusetta Board of Education ati an 
inspector and institute lectur*^r, Tn 1854 he v^ent to Princeton 



1, Pe.st.wlo2!zi-i:!Ktliod.-i of 'jle^o. Inotruction. In^ j^^arnar d' s . 'jner. Jour. 
of Bd. Vol. 7, 1859, p. 684. 

2. Phillips, (Op.cit.) pp. 508-509. 



-114- 

nfl an instructor in physical geography and geology, His 
firsit worlr pubiiahed in this country waa entitled 'fhe Earth 
and ran and ims publishfld in Poaton in 1Q49, 7he influence 
of }?itter \73B undoubtedly f«lt in the United states before 
the arrival of Guyot, hut it id reasonable to auppose that 
a truly great geographer so intimately connected with the 
public achool system of jjKipnatjV'uaetts for six yeara and later 
« profesaor in one of our leading universities would i;reatly 
ir.oreaae the influence of ^ds foriGar teacher, especially 
since he hir.self believed i:: the yame principles as .lid 
Hitter, aa is sho«m by the following quotation fror. 'T'>!.e jjarth 

••' i ■* '^f » • 

'•Jlo, fjeography - and I ref.ret that usage forbid :i me 
to eirploy the mostauit-^tble A-ord, Geo lo.^y, to denignate the 
general Rcience of which I sperik, - Geography our-ht to be 
raoinething different from a mere desoripti.in. It 3hoi.ti<i 
corr.pare, it K-iouid interpret, it should rise to the ho-*? and 
the where fore oT ths phenomena which it describes, it ia 
not enou.'sh for it coldly to : irKitjr..iae the globe, by merely 
takinf; cognizance of the arrangement of the various parts 
which constitute it. It must endeavor to aei^e those in- 
cessant mutual actions of the different portions of physical 
nature lipon each other, of inorg^^nic nature upon orgenized 
beings, upon man ir particular, qnd upon the successive de- 
velopment of human societie;;; in a word, studying the reciprocal 



-115- 

ection of all these forces, the perpetual play of which 

constitutes what might be called the life of the globe, 

it should, if I may venture to say so, take up its physiology. 

To understand it in any other way, is to deprive geography 

of its vital principle; it is to make it a collection of 

partial, unmeaning facta; it is to fasten upon it forever 

the character of dryness, with which it has so often and 

so justly been reproached, For what is dryness in a science, 

except the absence of those principles, of those ideas, of 

those general results, by which well-constituted minds are 

nurtured? 

Physical geography, therefore ought to be, not only 
the description of our earth, but the physical science of 
the globe, or the science of the general phenomena of the 
present life of the globe in reference to thei r connection 
and their mutual dependence . 

This is the geography of Humboldt and of Ritter.« 
Was not this the source of strength for the movement 
toward relating geography to what could be actually observed? 
Was it not these ideas of Ritter which were back of the move- 
ment by the Boston school visitors to demand more than mere 
memorization, to demand a clearer understanding of causes 
and relationships? were ideas similar to these not the cause 
of the sarcastic saysings of the county superintendent in 
New York State? There certainly was a similarity of views 



1, Guyot: The Earth and Man., pp. 3-4, 



-116- 

involved, Guyot and Ritteii had advocated making physical 
geography the very 'baais of the acionce and studying geonniphy 
through the interrelationships of the various f«ctor!i in- 
volved. In our /itrierican schools we find the "be^^inninge of 
the same ideas. They liad taken root even "before Guyot cane, 
and it was only natural that they ahould continue to grow 
with his influence to aid the<a. 



-117- 
CHAPTKR VI 
00KCLU3I0N 

The writf-r has endeavored to trace the hiatory of 
the movement to ir.olude geography in the ourriculum, the 
c}ia)ige in the content of textbooks, and fhr. orogreas made 
inthe developinrtnt of methods of teachinj^. The i)rogreaa 
made along each of theae lines can he sioiiimed up in a fovi- 

ords. In 1776 we find geography taui;j;ht incidentally, aa 
a part of such subjeota as navigation, aatronorriy, and 
nmthemati c3. In 1800 ^b find it being taught in a nuoiber 
of the elementary schools and in academies, but iitili it is 
a nei? subject, }?r-ora 1820 to 1830 it gains rapidly because 
of the grest tioverftent of pe-T^le into the YVest, but tficre is 
atill considerable opponition to it:? introduction into 
the curriculiim. However, progress is stewily and tiure, and 
during the next decade t7<-o ststen, risao'-tri and } Rseachusetts, 
enact lairs which make googr^^phy a part of the curricuiuiti of 
the eLer-iientrry school, j>urinF; the foilo'ving decade, ^B4C to 
1850, th« states of Connecticut, H"ode lijlcind, hcw Yorj^, 
Virginia, Ohio, Illinnis, and ,7iacanrfin enact laws Either re- 
quiring the teaching of geogr?;phy in tfie achoois or liuting 
it aa one of the aubjcota in which a teacher znus-i; be examined. 
This may be said to be the status of the -.nibject in 1860 as far 
as legislation is concerned. At that time it -,vas clearly 
accepted sa a part of the curriculiun. 



il8- 

In an earlier chapter mention waa made of tVie in- 
fluence of the 'vestward movement e.nd of our increasing 
foreign coramerce upon the position occupied by f;eof;raphy in 
the curriculum. These influences were discussed especially 
in connection "vlth the gain made fron 18?,0 to 1R30, Of 
course both of these influences continued to exert fjre-.t 
pressure throughout the period* No sooner i^as the Ohio 
▼alley settled than the pioneer moved on to the r^pir^r beyond 
the Hiasissiwpi, Pirst the states just weot of t})e 'iaaissippi 
were settled, and after the annexation of ?cx-s in 184r) 
settlera poured into that stftc, Th^re had also been a 
steady inovement of settlern across the plains to 'asbir-Tton 
and Ore^-on. The Mexican Var opened up va^t ne^r territories 
to settlement, and firially there o^me the Galiforni?? (T'^lti 
rush. There vras created a deir.«nd for knoivledge as tn tie 
character of all this fref^t exp'^npf of country. L'any v;i=3hed 
to move to the '//er;t, and even t>iose who did r'Ot lesve their 
old homes east of the 'isaipaippi were intererted in a 
region which was to be the bone of friends and relf. tives. Aa 
the country rrew national pride glpo Pive-vr, nni. r^tur-lly 
the man Trho was so proud of the vsst extent of his n-stive 
country iri ?ihed his chiliJren to Vnow jurt as rauc'i as possible 
about thnt country, 

"During this pian::e period 'Vmerican coiora'jrce i.icrev.3ed 
very rapidly, Ainerican ships, manned by y^ericnn sailors, 



■ 

1 



-119- 

were to be found in every port of importance in the world. 
American sailing vessels were the fastest in existence at 
that time, and we held our giipremacy on the seas until after 
the Civil 'Var, As a resxJilt of our increased commerce there 
grew up a demand for foreign commo fix tier?. Things which had 
once been luxuries becarae necessities. Our needs increased, 
and at the saiie time the deiaand for oar agricultural x>-oductB 
caused our xStilth to incresse. We wanted the product'3 of 
forei<m countries, and we Y«rere able to pay for theto. Closer 
co'-oiTiercisl relations with foreign peoples reHul!;ed in a 
breaking down of harrier-j and a greater Intereijt in and know- 
ledge of not nnJ.j' the commodi tie^ p:"o luced ui other ountries 
but also in t>"'? '^fJoplH th;3mii5eive.^3, Knowladr^e of foreiji-n 
oountriea ^.nd foreiftn peoples^ led to a .leia'^.nd for more such 
kno'rle:Ve, "^l-io ienc.nd for foreictn pro>hir;tH led to a demand 
for 1<nowledi:';e rs to 'There thonc projuoi, i were produced and 
where thej' could bo nost c-conomioRlly ohtr-fined, Just ar? the 
'sres^twp'r'd rovf^'^ent coiled for nore k.;T owl edge of pliyi-icj^l 
feofrrr-'phy, so our increased cor!.merce called for roj-e Icnow- 
led/?e nf econordc and coinaercial f<eogrt.'phy, 

;~ide hy side ^ith thenr, caororif: cV-anj.eB wo find cer- 
tain Booinl chp.nrep. '''hroUfThout tyif: country ciiiey were 
springing lip, and the people of t!.c nitien depended upon the 
fanmr. for their fooc. }To lonror did each irian produce every- 
thing he needed. There was divisio;i of luT'or. Here we have 



-120- 

econoraic and social char^reg working qide by nlde, or, 
more properly, one growinf; out of the other, Society tended 
to become a whole rather than merely a group of aep. rate 
units, "^he turnpikes, the stejimboats, the railroads all tended 
to bind the various parts of the country together and to in- 
crease the amount of tre^rel from one part of the country to 
another. 

All of thetse chanf^es demanded a fuller 'Knovvledge of 
other regions than the one litiMe spot where a .-ran spent 
fuo&t of hi a life, fJeop.ryph^ wsa deaigued to supply 3Uoh a 
kno*led;-Q, and 30 it was bound to increase in po >aic^rity. 

The changes in the textbooks yre axBo clearly due to 
changes in denand, £arly in t'ne c'^^oary there was s te-idency 
to fill the geographies with inaterial dealing vfii th curious 
physical phenomar.a, the peculiar laannerd and customa oi 
peoples iii li^rioas partw of tVie i-orid, the locationo of 
citie£5, r.iountaina, ri\rer.'5, bayo, oap«3, ialanda, und other 
physic^"! feahurea, the bouudariess of politixil divisio/is, 
and a acore of little deti^.ila Yi&viuQ to do Ait'n tVie adirunistra- 
tion of our nfitionai government. In a word, it ivaa the 
geography 3uited to a aaiior or trader, with some more or 
less useful odda anu ends thrown i.n because tKiere -waa no 
other place in tne otirriculuxu for fnem. The great space 
devoted to curiosities is attributable to the interest in 
auch a subject which *iil invtivie.\>ly be si-ioah by an untravelled 



I 



-121- 

and comparatively ignorant people. 

At a slightly later date the numerouf^ refererceo to 
brilpes, turnpikes, and cannla reflect the interest of 
the people in internal iriproveroenta. The turnpikes snd 
"bridges i^ive way to railroads and gteara"boat8 at a Ister date, 
hut the canals ret?.in their place throughout tha period, 
During the decades follcifin'T 1830 more attention in given to 
both the physical and coirimercial phases of the suhject. The 
texthooka deal in greater detail with the^e two pha«e^ of 
geography and omit much of the useless raaterial of an earlier 
date, 'Tovfever, it is just at the close of the period that 
coiBmerciaX geography hegiria fco forge ahead of phynical geog- 
raphy in importance. 

The change in method corresponds to the content of 
the textbooks. The material in the early textbook was 
suitable for little other than memoriaation, and consequently 
it was laeiooriaed. Later, under the influence of Pe'^talozaJ, 
Ritter, and others, the iiiethod of presentation ch?inges. The 
little child begiae his atudy of geography with his ijr.ne<lLate 
surroundings and then gradually goes forward into the legs 
familiar material, I'Jmphasis is placed on observation, and, 
curiously enough, this fits rj.ght in with the emphssia placed 
on physical geography by the school of Ritter and hi? followers, 
During the last tViree decades of tlie ueriod tl-^ere is an insisjient 






I 



-1?2- 

deinp.nd thnt the child te niTen an opportunity to ur.c >iis 
rep-soninK powers in connection with geography. The erTjhasia 
on phyHical geogr'-.phy affords an exfiellent opportunit:/ of 
tiiia sort, and it iti in the works of Gayot thet we see triia 
best illustrated. 



-123- 



.APPEUDIX 



-124- 

APPENDIX 

GEOGRAPHY '■'KXTB00K3 IL' USE B^T'WilEK 1776 .'Un) 186C. 

1, Ad?ir!S, Alexander 

§H'^.l:g:^Z of _f>^06 ';r^--P>^y and ^ Tl ".torj , London, 1754. 

2, Adams, TTenry W» 

geographic Ags^ii qtant , ?.:iddletown, 1B40, 

3, Andr&vyg, G.O, 

Lan ca a tcri an Geof^ raphy , K.Y. lat >fid. 1B20, 

4, .Ansted, !>.T. 

l-'hy qj cal Gfco^n. ap^hy , I.nndor', 185?. 
5 4 Aiithon, Chr.rles 

An cient and Med iaeval aeography, H.Y. 184G. 
e, Arnold, T.K. 

Putz'B iii.imuB.l of Ancient 0?of; r--'phy fi nd vu^tory, 

K.Y. 1849. 

7, BalM, Adrian 

Abri (igcm fint of Univerg gl ("Teog;raph y, l^rt i^d., 
Boston, 1835. 

8, Barrington, A. 

Treatise on Physical "eofj-j:pV'.y;, V-.Y., 1850. 

9, Be van, W, L, 

M£.^Ji?A„.°^..A"_?i5A\J^-?°.S.?f'P^V' London, lti52. 

10, Biot, J.B. 

Ana 1 y t i c a 1 Geography, li.Y. 1846. 



-125- 

11. make, ,T,L. 

Geo^_ r';-ph.v f or C^ildre?," ''.Y. 1045 

Textbook in Geography an d Chronolo.-?y . Providence, 1814 

Am gr icpn UniverBal deograrihy ,}} ,Y , 183.^, 

K e ff ^ ^\m ff r i c ar JJn j vf? r g a 1 n en{T,r:>ph^r , Poston, 3.B35, 

]^ew American School G eotT^r -^phy , Boston, .1837, 

12. 31ia3, Sylvester 

^jna lyrsis of CGO(rraphy , Boston, 1847. 
15, iolMjjj - 

Geography , 17115. 

14, Sutler, i-'rederick 

is:ietneijt3 of Geog ragJrjy eiad Hi st ory , i/e th er s f i si d, 1825 . 

15, Butler, Sacmel 

Anoidiit Geography , Boston, r.d, Geogra&hlca Claasica. 

Philadelphip, 1B47. 
10, Criiiicjatt, T.c, 

Fan-Jboak of Universal Geo;yr .:iphy. r.Y. 1854. 

Cyjy^oyo^sole. ot' v'eography , ?'.Y. 18b 4. 
17. Camp, J. ii. 

Primary C. e ggr.-.pjiy , Hartford, 1861. 

Geo^^rap^iy . Kartfora, 185}. 
IB. Carpenter, Lant 

Intro i vucti on to the Ueagr aphy ^^of^jbhe y.eyr T eatanient . 

Ciinbridge, 1st lid., 1811. 
19, Carter,J,K. and W, H, liroolca 

Geogra]jhy of laaoachua etts, Boston, 1850. 



-126- 

Geo g raph y of WQrce3tor County , Boston, .1830 
Geography of Esaex C ou nty , Boaton, 1830, 

20, Carter, Cornelius i3. 

Elemfenta of Phyaical and political Geography , 

Boston, 1855. 

ITew 3erie^3 of G eO(i;r?^phy Q,ue3tiona, Providence, 1832, 

21, Dwiglit, Kathaniel 

Ggo^rap hy of t^ie forld , IT.Y. 1795. 
2a, Gordon, Patriclc 

Ge o graphy Anatoxriged , London, 1754, 

23, TTRie, Knthan 

Epito nie of TTni versa! Ge ogr: ?.phy , Boston, 1830, 

24, Hall, 3.R, 

Geography for Children. 3pri rif^field, 183iii, 
'^5, Hallworth, Thoinan 

q utli le/r of Geogr aphy, ^.Y, 1846. 

26, Hart, Jo-i^ph C. 

Popul ;?"" '"yat 'im of Practl caj. j Gep.gr».PJiy,>, N.Y.1851, 
Geog r:.p hy for IJ ' ^e of ocho.Tlg , }T,Y. 1825, 

27. Fawkes, p. 

A."erican Cn'-iprri 3o__n ; flkstch of G_eogr?p>iy. 

Philadelphia, 1887, 
23, TTo garth, G. 

Outline.: of Geograph y, Loridon, 26 3£d. 1850, 
29, "olmoa, .Tohn 

The Gr-^qnsrian'g Geoig;r aphy and Astronomy, Lo n do n , 

1851, 



-127- 

30, Hubbard, John 

RudiFjenta of Geogr.-^phy , \7alpole, 1805, 

31 , ^Tughe 3 , lildward 

On tllrir;:; of Phy aical Oeogr-^hy, London, 1853. 

32, TTunti'.ngton, IT'O-, 

Systei:! o f Joder n Geogr-^phy, Hartford, 1B34, 

33, Koepper, A. L, 

The 'yorid i ii the ¥i ddle Afres ; A Hi atori cal 
geography , H.Y. 1854. 

34, Leavitt, "Oiidley 

Juvenile Geography . Concord, 1829. 

35, Lyon, S.M, 

I'usi c«l g e g^'Tir :::phy , Troy, 1849. 

36, !'ulto-}";rmi, Conrad. 

''^'/.^''i^J'-^.Ji.'^. V}Ay^''''-^ ^^- '^.^PI^'^-^\ ?^7 : * Boaton, 1836. 

37, !5atho^, -T.H. 

?fanual o f G g 3gr -vp^ v/ . Hartford. Revised i'id.l850, 

38, Koyo, Robert 

Yie.r of Anciept GPOE rpphy and n iutory, F hi la del phi a, 
iai3, 

39, Ti:eli3h, John 

Geoi^r- ^riic Descri iition of the V/orid. Philadelphia, 

III '^' * ' ■■ .. _, — -- ■ ■ ■ . .. I - 

ibi«. 

Geogr p}iic Pegcription of_jthjs_J7njjeji_^tMvt^ 

Philadelphia, 1816. 



-128- 

\ 40, Mitlahell, S. Augustus 

?irat Leasong In Geography . Philadelpbin, 1860. 
Primary Geography , PhiladelpViia, 1840. 
Few Prin^ry Qeogrnph/ . Philadelphia, 1860. 
Internedigte Geogri°.phy . Philadel hia, 1853. 
Kew Interneiiqte Geogrp.phy . Philadelphia, 1860. 
3 ynten of rodern Trf n^:r.'::'?hy . Philadelphia, 1860. 
Hi^h 3chool GeotTr^?phv . rhlladelv.hia, 1854. 
Ancient ffeo^raphy . PMladolphia, 1045. 
^^w An lent fTeorr-q phy, Philadelphia, 1860. 
mblioal BaTjhath-School Geogrtapliy . Philadel,.hia,1855. 
'^l^og.^ ^P^io ? ;ie' ^itlo n •"-'■)o ^;. riiila>lelphia, 1854. 
Gepg rpphj c al ;nfiarlor. Ph.iladelphiji, 1840. 

41, T'onteith, Tames 

l^ir^t Legq ona in ^S.v.^ry^ph^. IJ.Y. i-dbJ, 

Intro juatl an to VulmiI -jT G eo^T:.'phy . N.Y.1857, 

Yout h *B Manual of .Ifeograph y, K.Y. 1853. 

42, TToroe, Jedldiah 

4g'*^-^o^Q''i^"'"- l ""''' ^^eof^rapli.ical Cat;jouiai-i .Eodx>u, 1792. 
jtoericnn rrazetfeer , Boston, 1797. 

Araeriean UniVGrB.-il CrOQ,c:r^^ph^' . Bo a t ^n , fi th i; d. 1312. 
Am eT\cifr\ naQ^^f 'ovhy . E.uisahethtown, 1789. 
Coropendious Syster of 'odervi Geogy'aphy . Boston, 1814. 
BleTPerta of C?eog-T->^.]-hy . ro-:5toji, 4f x i<;d. irjOa. 
I Geogr'^phy T'ade I^auy . Hew Havun, 1784. 



-129- 

43, ^orae, Jedidie-h and Sidney E, T:'orse 

Geofcraphy rade iilasy . 22nd Ed. Boston, 1820, 
Ne w ijyatem of Geogrr.phjy, .Ancient and I.odern , 
Boston, 23rd Ed. ,1822. 

44, ?orse, Sidney 

Hew System of ' clern C-eogrrphy , Boston, 1822. 
SygteTTi of geogrr.phy for Use of ^'^cjioola^ .li .Y. 1844. 

45, Muenacher, Joseph 

outlines of PracMcal ge ngrcphy. .l^rooicfi eld, 1827, 
4o, Murr?iy, Hugh 

Ency clopaedia of^jQGojtrapn^ Philadelphia, 1843, 

47, ri'ichol?., V. 

Sl>?m rttai-y Tre ati -a e^ on G e o g r aph jT , Pb i 1 5 d ei phi a , 

■'Jew jid. 1B13, 

48. O'Brien, l'^. 

iLHtheirur.iop.l GeoKX..:jh y. Loiidosi, 105^, 

49, Olney, J, 

Prpc;tic?l Geoiirophy for IJse ii; Gchools. l'ajctrord,1827 

7irst >.feOfr.raphv. 1, . Y , 1 B 4 9 . 

Pra ctical Introductioi. to GeO f rraphy, Ji.Y. 1849. 

Practical Hyi-terr. of .o:.Lern Geography. H -r t f o r J , 1 8 28 . 

',j.uar 1 '.reo^;rc ^h y , 1 . Y . u.d, 

Sy3te:-a of Ueographica l Q ^aebtioua . Hertford, 1S28. 

ISl ejr e CI t ?iry G eograpJiy , i-, .Y. 1847, 

50. Parish, Eli j eh 

Compen di ou 9 3y at eim o f .ffeoA'^j^-Piry.* 15er7"buryport,}Je.l807. 



yew Syatem of Fodern Ge of^rriph y. lTewburyport,1810. 

51, Percival, J.G, 

ITalte-Brun*3 TTniversal geography . "RoatorijlSSe, 

52, Pieraon, David, H, 

Syatem of Q.uent io ns in Geogrephy , V,Y. 1054, 

53, Pinkerton, John 

lAodern G'eogrr-phy . Philadelphia, ieC4. 

54, Pimioek, >?. 

Cs t ech i 3/Ti_ _o f Ge ogr aphy , I' . y . n.d. 

55, Bobbina, rJoyal 

VVoria Jlaplsyed in itn ju story _ ;'nd/^eogr-> .p\>y. 
H.Y. ia^S4, 
5{i« Robinson, A.J, 

Outlines of Phyaicol Ge ography , r.V, 10 th Sd. 1869, 

57, Ftowsori, 'Jusannah 

Yout h* a iJ^ir st St eps i n C^eo^rv.p h^, Boston, 1818, 
Abrid ger.'ent to Uniyerea l Geof^rLiphy . Beaton, 18(;5, 

58, Rudd, J.C. 

Comp end! im o f Geo^r'^-iJhy . Elizabethtowri, lt.'i6, 

59, 33lP)r»n, Thorns 

Modern (^azeteer . London, 8th Kd, 17 69. 

Modern Universal rra;,'.etee r. Lojidon, 10th Ef1.l782. 

Key Oeo^raphjc and ^ ^'j. otoricp.! Crat r ima r. Lo n do n , 1 2 th 

>;d. 1772. 

Geographical and A-atronorucal Grqmtnar,_ London , 

loth jsa. 17 Ob, 



-131- 

60, Banborn, Dyer H. 

G^eo|^-? phi ca l M anu al . Concord, 185fi, 

61, 3chjni(U, r.L. 

Co urge of Ancient i.v_eog^r?.phy. K . Y . n . d , 

62, Shea, I.Q. 

11 events of Geog^r-^plty ^Conbi ned .'jyj t h H istory cnd^ 
C'hronolo r:y . F.v. n.d, 

63, flinilej'-, ThoTnaa L"", 

■Kagy I ntroduction to Googrr.phjr, PMladelphia.1824, 
Satire d Qeofrrj-tPhy. pviile.del-ohia, 1824. 
Ent!yclo9G_edi£ o£ p e o pr--? phy , ^Tr^rtford, 1829. 

64 , ShI t h , Gha rl e o 

LLl^ T£r gg-l CTeofrr r-phy ' g.de Kaay, f- . Y . 17^5, 

65, Smith, Rofnfell C. 

Iji t r due t ipji to Si'^piV^p^:y^t N.Y. 1st tfid. 1846. 
Q.uarto Oeo^raphy. ;!::.¥. 7th Ed. 1847. 
Geos^iviphy _of the J;ro due t i ve ^^Y p_t e^. ^^.rtford.lSSS. 
l\le\N\f}eoj^rjy3hy, Philadelphia, 1960, 

66, 3rith, R.M, 

Child ' D Book of Geography, Philadeir-hla, 1R49. 
Wodern CTeograPhy. Philadelphia, 1840, 

67, ,3ruth, .7. W. and C. B. .^tout 

The You np: ,'^.^'^r .v' -„P-"T,» -'.'^. 1S58, 

68, SoTTserville, Fary 

Phy s i 3 1 G e Q fr :r aphy . Philadeiphia, 1B48. 



-132- 

69, Stout, C. B, 

Hart » a G eographi cal l^xeroi r^em. ]].v, 1857. 

70, Sullivan, Rotert 

Introductio n to Jie_0£rnpjiy. ^^ublin. 13 ]'Jd. 18F>0. 
Geog^raphy rrenernlized« Dublir, 12t^' Sd. 1849. 

71, Turner, H, 

Intro duct i or; to .Un iJi;?r^'^J:.^'lS°iyi^iPiiZ* ^'^^i i n , 1 1 h 
Ed, 1810. 
7 2. Van Wat ere, Georj^e, 

Po^ eMoal pJ>p^rS'pJ^/.> -'^ "*^''- ""^■'■'^ • I'iSl • 

73, '/arren, ■!, '". 

Pririary ^reop.Tf^jphy, Pliilfldeiphi^;, 18C0. 
CoT omon School C e n g: r p.p hy . Philarfeiphia, ifib?, 
Syatem of Fhysio sl Ceogr ephy, Philadelphia, 1856. 

74, Willard, Smrra 

GjeogrHphy f c r _^'B_e gi nri era. Hertford, 1826, 
Rudinient 3jof_G_eoj^rKjih;^,_ Ji.nf^^ Tjart- 

ford, 2n'\. ^d. IB"^?. 

75, lilletT, Taoo'b 

Kfmy Gr iririav of Oenjr y.iphy . -"nuf-hVeepoie , 1B14. 

r. en|5;r;_-i t)h-"' for Use q_r_ Bchool_B, Pou{:>iheepi33 o,13th Ed, 

lS2o. 

Coi- 'pendi uus 3y.-'jl-ein oi\ Geo^rsjih^. rou-hice'?psi e , 1819, 

76, Woodlsridre, V.C. 

First Steps to Gecj£rgphy._JTart ford, 1S32, 
LRudi:a ent3 of Geography , R^>rtford, 2nd Kd. 1522, 



-133- 

?! od le r n 3ohool C-'='Of . ;r'^pV iy. Hartford, 1844, 

■jystflin of '" odern Geograph y, H rtford. Improved Kd. 

1852. 

WoodTDridf^B and \7illard'n 3y ^it cui o f 'Jnivv-^raal 

Geography, rnrtford, 1B24, 

77, 7oroo^;tor, "^OMtiph IS, 

syHt ch Pn of th(^ E^rth a m; Itn _Tnh Gbltrntn .?p!3ton,1822C 
F ler.cTj ^tr c^ ..Cj ^o>T P:P^?'',. M '.ci.t'n t _g-n d Modern , Po s t on, 1819 . 
Spitone of Toderrj Georrcphi', Bo-.toj;,' ir.?X', 

Ancient ClnriBiop.l _a}irl__3orlpt ur:\3. (J ^eo^jr f.ph^ ^ , Bo at on . n . d. 

78, Worce^tor, 3airiucl 

IflTzt ZlooV. cf Creogr-^pby. l^cston, IB 31. 

79, WnrSiaaa, :??cnjar:j.n 

Kleiie nt-: ■.•.:" "':c^ri-p^' ;; , ]Ouladej.j)hia, i2th Kd.ia07, 
60, Zcrniiri, Hoaina 

?K^cre£.t4 : V.!-: in Di yt.icfc.l CtiOcrr-pViy, Lor. don, 4th Ed, 

l«bl. 

Outline " of Phy.'ic?.! ^'■^/■!-;^"" •T' . ^^.f . ^ London, 1?51, 

Additional V.ithorr; of 'Jeogr'ipyry Te:;ttc>o':8: 

81, BrinnTiade,- 

82, 3^lRir, - 
8:>, Ji.urritt., - 

84. Drur:/ , - 

85. Davie, - 

86. ^CTfle, William 



87. Field, — 



"I'M" 
1 



1. The foregoing list hna been corpilod from the following 
aourcos: 

8. Amorioan Textbooks. In :garnard*o / ^.er Jour, of 
Kd. Vol. 13, pp. 209-222. Vol. 14, pp. ^iJi-77'^ Vol. lb. 
pp. 5:S9-&75, 

b. Anon, School-lBooka in the unitod fJtMteo. In Amor. 
An nals of M . . Vol. 2, pp. 573-375. 

c. nagi^! Ann. Bep H of the au p«t of Got a. acho. Kew York, 
1833. pp. C6-73. 

d. Books found in librHrie.'j. 



The writer foiand the aoinea liated undui iHu.i'iKr.^ 61 to 87 in 
listg of rjuthor«< of {?:eof?raT)hy texthoolcs, but the titles were 
rot liateid. 



-135- 



BIBLIOGRAPTTY 



-136- 
OEOanAPHY TEXTBOOKS IIIGLIJDED IK TABLES I AND II 

1, Morse, Jedidiah, Geography T.'ade F.aay . 10th Ed., 1806. 

2, Parish, Elijah, A New System of fodern Geography, 1810. 

3, "Villeta, Jacob, A Compendious System of Geography , lat 3d. 
1819. 

4, Morae, Jedidiah and Horse, Sidney Edwards, A New System 
of Geogr-'phy, Ancient a.nd Fodern, for the Use of schools . 
23rd 35d. 1822. 

6, Willets, Jacob, An Sasy Gr^usmar of Geography , 10th Ed., 

1823, 
6, Gumming 3, J, A. An _ Introduction to Ancient and Ko dern 

Geography , 9th Ed,, 1823, 
7e Woroefitor, J.S, Elenents of Geography, Ancient and i:odern . 

Stereotype Ed, 1824, 

8, Goodrich, Griswald, A System of School Geography, Chiefly 
Derived fron ?!alte-Brun, Ist ']d. , 1830, 

9, Olney, J, A, A Practical System of Jodern Geograph y, 17th 
Ed. 1834, 

10, Smiley, Thomas T?, The Encyclopae d ia of G e ography , 1839, 
ll«Mitchell, 3. Augustus, An Easy Introdu ction Into the 

Study of Geography , 1st Ed., 1843, 
12,\7oodbridge, William C, I^odern School Geography, 2nd Ed. 1845, 
13, Smith, Roswell C, Geof^raphy of the Proiuctive System, for 

Schools, Academies and ?aiailie3, 1861. 
14,01ney, J. A, A Practical and Complete .-Jyatem of Geography 

for Schools , 105th Ed., 1366. 
15, Cornell, S,S, I ntermediate Geogr-phy , 1865-1869? 



-137- 

BIBLIOGRAPfrf 
Primary Sources 
I, Legislative Documents 

1. Acts and Resolves of the Province of the l^assachuaetts Bay , 

1769-1780 . (Boston, .7right and Potter Printing Co. 1886) 

2. Laws of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 1827 (Boston, 

Button and Wentworth, 1828) 

3. A.cts and Resolves Passed By the Legislature of T'asnachuaette , 

1859 . (Boston, Dutton and 'fentworth, 1839). 

4. Lews of the St^^te of Hew York . 17 89-1796. (Albany, Yeed, 

Parsons, and Co., 1C87), 

5. Laws of the Btate of Hew York. 1841 . (Albany, Thurlow ,7eed, 

1841). 

6. Laws of the State of K6w York. 1847 (Albany, Charles Van 

Bonthuysen, 1847). 

7. Acts and Laws of the State of Conne cticut^ 1796-1802, 

(Hartford, Hudson and Goodwin). 

8. Public Acta of th^ 3t vte o f Corir.e cticut , 1841 (Hartford, 

J, HolTirook, 1841). 

9. Rhode Island Acts, Resolves, and Reports , 1845-1846. 

10, Acts of the general AsseBbly of Virginia. 1845-46 , 

(Richmond, Samuel Shepherd, 1846). 

11, The Code of Virgi rda, 1849 (Richmond, William F. Ritchie, 

1849). 

12, Generrq and Local Laws of Ohio, 1858^t_ (Coluir.bus, Samuel 

Hedary, 1838). 



-138- 

13, Ao t8 of a C?enerql Hature, State of Ohio. 1848-1849 . 

(Columbua, Cb.a3. Scott, 1849), 
14, ^e Revised f>tatut e 3 of the -itate of !'isf3ouri, 1835. 

(3t, Loui3, 3upt. PulDlic Printing, 1835). 
15* Laws of the State of Illinojg, .^ ^p e ci^al !L?ession, 1857 . 

(Vandalia, v/illiam ^Vultera, 1837). 
16 » Laws of the state of lllinoia, 1859 . (Springfield, Bailhache 
and Baker, 1(31)9 ). 

17. LewB of the State of Illinois. Ifirut Se gaion, 1849 . (Spring- 

field, Charles it. Laiaphier, 184S), 

18, Statutes of the territory of Alsconain, 1858-1859, (Mil- 

waukee, 1839). 
19 • The Revised Statutes of the Strte of yisconsin, 1849 . 
(Southport, Latharft Sholes, 1849), 

II, TQxfoookp 

1, Morae, Jedidiah, Geot/rnphy I'ade ..■^sg.y, iOth ^d . , (Boston, 

J, T, Suckingham, 1306). 

2, Workn^n, Benjamiri. ^«aerGent g o f .Geography , 12th Ed, (Phil- 

adelphia, l!lbenezer Mcculloch, 1807). 

3, Dwight, Nathaniel. Geograpy\y of the ..orld . (New York, 

Kvert Duyckiricl:, 1810). 

4, Parish, Elijah. A ITew Sygten of Kodern Geography , 1st Sd. 

Hewburyport, Vermont, Tho.mau and Vv'Viipple, 1810). 

5, Willeta, Jacol;. A CoBpendioua System of Geography, Idt Ed. 

(Philadelphia, P. Potter, 1819), 



-139- 

6, Morse, Jedidiah and Morse, Sidney Edwards: A New Syatem 

o f fleo£;ra]3hy. Ancient and > ou er n , 23rd Kd. (Boston, 
Hiohardaon and Lord, 1822), 

7. Willets, Jacob, An Easy Gracmar of Geography , 10th jid, 

(Philadelphia, P raclete Potter, 1823). 

8. dimming i3, ,T,A, An Introduction to Ancient and :.odern 

Geography , 9th Ed, (Boston, Cunnings and Hilliard, 
1823). 

9, Worcegtor, .T,.B. Blementa of Oeography, Ancient and Lodern , 

Stereotype Ed. (Boston, Cumminf^s , Hilliard, and Co,1824), 

10, Goodrich, Griswald, A System of School Geography, Chiefly 

Peri ve d _f r o^ni TAa l t e - Jirxin , Ist iid, (Booton, Carter and 
Hendee, 1830), 

11, Sniley, Thonas F. Th e ancy e lopaedia of Geography ;, lat Ed, 

(Cincinnati, Ely and Strong, 1839), 

12, I'itchftll, 3, Augui'tua, An :ij!eay Introduction into the 

Study of Geography. 1st Ed, (Philadelphia, Thonaa, 
Cowperthwait ana Oonipany, 1043), 

13, v/oodhridge, William C, Modern School Geography , :ind 3d, 

(Hartford, Belknap and Hairteraiey, 1845), 

14, V^n Waters, George. Th e Poetical Geography , 1st Ed, 

(Cincinnati, 1B53). 

15, flmith, RosTrell, 0. Geography of the Productive Syst em, 

for Schools, Adadenies and_yamilie^^ (P>'iladelphia, 
J, B, Lippincott and Company, 1861.) 

16, Olney, J. A, A P ractical System of 1 ode rn Geography , 17th 

Ed, (Hartford, Rohison and Pratt, 1834). 



-140- 

17, Olney, J. \, A Practical and Conplete System o f Geography 

for School rj . 105th 33d. (Few York, Sheldon and Company, 1866) 

18, ^Cornell, 3.S, I nterne diate Geo/rraph y (New York, j), Apple ton 

and Company, 1865-1869?) 

19, Kitchell, n, Aw;;u9tua, A Systeni o f "'To dern Geo(;rap?i[y, 

(Philadelphia, E. H. Butler and Company, 1869). 

Ill, Artioles in Educational 'ournals 

1, Anon. Sohool-Booka in the United Statea. In American Annals 

of EduGation edited by J, C, -'oodhridge. Vol. XI, 1B32, 
p. 375. 

2, iVnon, CoTOnon Sduoatioa, Prevalent Defects and Proposed 

Reicedies, In Americ an .Tounml of Education, Vol. 2, 
1827, pp. 159-160. 

3, Anon, Beginning to Teach Geography. In Th e O ommon School 

Journal edited by Horace k'ann. Vol, 4, 184-'!, p. 262, 

4, An Ohtserver, Comnon Schools of Connecticut, In American 

Annals of .liliucation and Ingtpuotion, edited hy ^m, 

C. Woodhrii.7e, /ol. 3, 1832, pp. ii47-248. 
6« Dunn'y School Teacher 'u ¥.e.n\XRl, In Z o nnec 1 1 c ut C oLmo n 

School .Journal . edited by Henry Barnard, Vol. 2, 1839, p. 32. 
6, Fowie, .Villiam. geography. In The Goiiin^n /3chool Journal , 

edited by William ]?owle. 1852, p. 324. 



1, Cornell's Intermediate G eography contains no date of publica- 
tion. It contains a list of the presidents to Andrew {Jphnson^ 
It oraita .Johnson's last date, thus, "Andrew Johnson, 
1865 ." 



«141- 

7, ^owle, William. r>uggeatian3 as to basing geography 

lAoaona on clippings from newapupera. In The Common 
Huhool jJourrjp.l, edited by '/iliittia ''owle. Vol. 11, 
1849, pp. 377-379. Vol. 13. 1«51, pp. 133-137,330, 

8, TTlll, Thomas, "^he True Order of Studies. In l^arnerd'a 

Aner i can Journal of itlduoat 1 on . Vol. 7, 1859, p. 2''5. 

9, Lettern frori r Toaoher to ro^- Youns Ifernalo l?riend Juet 

Aljout Oorunencing TO Keep School. In Thfe CoraHOii "ichool 
Journal, edited by ^Tor?.ce rann. Vol, 3, 1841. aee Index. 

10, Kann, ^''oraoe, Geography. In The (jowmon iSohOQl Journal , 

edited "by Horace liann. Vol. a, 184(*), pp. 33-41, 

11, Keriews of" Tfixtbooka. In iV rterioan Jourma of Educ;rtion .^ 

Vol. 1. Ib26, p. 176. 
13, Shattuck, Lemuel. Ir.provemont in our OoKinon Schools, in 
Ainericiin Annf-la of JWucntion and Inntru ction, V ol. 1, 

■ ■■MM ii iM iiMMi n a i w wii 1111 n m m !■■■ p w WM -i»<iii. wi m m * w m w ■■■■■ — r >- H Mi > mim ■■» w iw mw ii^i-^Mi^— . - 

1830, p. 138, 

13, Thayer, Gedeon F. Letters to a ''oung Tpnoher. In Barnardfa 

An nr ioan Journal of Bduc^.tio n, edited by 'Tenry Barnard. 
Vol. 8, 1860, p. 84. 

14. ^''oodbridi^e, V/illinm. Boston Public Schools. In iXmerioan 

AKn al B of >■! JUcrAti op and Instruction, edited by v/. C. 
1?ffodbridF:e, Vo3.. 4, 1854. P. S58. 
11, tyoodbridfce, William. Jilementriry Instruction in Geography. 
I n AmciTicr^n Annala of :Mucation and IriBtruotion , edited 
"by ^-Z. 0. voodbridfre. Vol. 4, 1834, pp. 115-116. 



-14^.- 

IV, State Peports 

1, J?Iagf, A. C. Annua l Report of the Superintendent of Com - 

mon Schools . ITew York, 1833, 

2, Flapg, A, G, Annual H e pjrt of the 3 -perintendent of Co m- 

mon So hoola. Ke^v York, 1854, 

3, Mann, fTorace, Mf th Ann ual ]?_epo rt of the S ecreta ry ^of the 

Board of Education, Maaaaohuaetts, 1842. (Eoaton, 
Button and Wentworth, 1S42), 

4, Jfann, Horace, Sev enth Annual Report of th e Secratary of th e 

Bo ar d o^f ^ .^il'^.^?.t.--.^Jl». -"•'^asachuoctts, 1844. (Bontou, Dutton 

and 'Ventvorth, 1844), 
5 • Hep ort o f_ the Su perintendert of CoTrj''.cn Gchools, Connecticut , 

1856-1B57, (HewHaven, Carrington and notchkiss, 1057). 
®» Report of the Superin t endent of Gonimcn schools, Connecticut , 

1859-1860. (Hartford, Dsy and Clark, 186C). 
7, Youns S, .Vrinual Report of the Superiatenaent of CQTjr.on 

School a. I'evT '^'^r'v>, 1845 (Uliariy, Carroll and Cook, 1845), 

V, City Reports 

!• Be at on School _R ep or t a , 1845, (jioston, J.^T. Eas churn, 1845). 
2» Tvrc Yi t y- T?o u r t h^ iknnual Rep ort ^f the '"r u^teea and Viait ora 

o / the Common Scho ols of Cincinn ati. (City TJublication, 

1853), 
3, T/ifchtrcan, Joseph K. Annala of t he Ponton PriBtary Scho ol 

Gomr. i 1 1 e e , 1 818 -1855. (Boston, Geo. C. Rand and Avery, 

1860). 



-143- 

VI, Leoturetj Before the Amerio?in Tiintituto of Instruction. 

1, Garter, Jaiiiea. On the Bereloptnent of the Intellectual 

Faoulties and on Teaching Geogrriphy, In P ro see di iig 3 
of the American Inv i_ti tute of In3turc t ion,1 850(Bo3ton, 
TTilliar'd, Hray, Little, and -nikinn, 1831.). 

2, l?leniinrt, A. Tho Use of Glol->e3ln Teachinf; "TeoRraphy and 

AstroroHiy. Ir Proc eeding-; of the American Tmt i tute 
^f Ingtru olioM, 13-41. (T?03ton, 1S41). 

3, ^'owle, '^illiaK, The Be^t Fethod of Teaching (Teogr^phy 

I" Pr oceediPc^3 o f t he Atagrican Insti^tjjte of Imbrue" 
ti on, 18 45. (loaton, Tililam D. Ticknor and Company, 
1846). 
4>, Oliver, TTenry K, T^ow I Was Educated from Six to fourteen. 
In l^ro ceodings o f Anier i can Institute of I natructio n, 
1871. (Boston, 1872). 

VII. ?^iscellr.ne::us 

■'•• '^^^' . Cincinnati A lirisre c , 1840, 

2. De Guiinps, Roper. restplo7.gi.l ^ ^Is Life a nd -Vork . (New York 

D, Ap'letor and Corrpany, 1892.) 

3, Guyot, Arnold. The EPTih and I'an^ fBoflton, Gould, 

Kendell, f^m^ l.,incoln, 1549), 



« r 



-144- 
aecondary 3ource8 

I, Hiatoriea of Kducntion 

1, Poeae, Thornaa, PublAc Tgducat iQ n i n the City of New York . 

(New York, ^'arper and Brotherfj, 1B69>. 

2, Carroll, Charlft!*, Publ ic j^Mucotion i n r;ho de It ^lajtd. 

(Providence, St.vtc T^onrd of Kducrtion, 1918), 

3, Coon, Charlea L, The BefrinniuK^ of i^'u biic K ducntiot. iri__ 

T^o rth C arol i na, _^ A BociutxtintB.r.y -'i t^tory , l?90-ia40 . 
(Uf-'.leirh, North Carolina ^^iotcricnl Aor5ociation,1908). 

4, ■'itzgorald, '"dward A» The iilduontiorRi ViowB and Influence 

of l)e fitt Clintojfi. (irew York, ?eanh«3r3» Colie/;e, 1911). 

5, Hatfiold, ^/illiaei Conrey, ttj story of the jqeflentsry 3ohool 

Curriculuct i n i.'a n:^achuaettn fr oio 1789 to 191 ,5. ( Ma a t e r ♦ s 
Thesis, TTnivergity of Ci.icaso, 1919). 

6, •'^iatoric a]^ Sket ch ba of the Public iichoola of the F^tate of 

Ohio. (State Centennial Piducation Corr.Kittee, 1H76). 

7, Johnaon, Clifton, Old-Time iJchools ?^nd 3chool Books. 

(Hew York, The KaoMiilan Coifjpany, 1904 K 

8, ''artin, Oeorge v, jftp .J^^vol^^tl ".r. o f the J!. .'x93KC-u.3'.^tta 

Public S choo l Sygtem . ( ; ew York, ■?. Apple ton and 
Corpnny, 1894). 

9, 7''orri;rether, Colyer. our _Colonial_Carri culura, ir>07-1776, 

(♦faahington. Capital Puoliahing Con))miy, 1907). 
10, Forrirjon, A. J. TItr Beginrjnga of P ublic j Muo»ti o n in 

ViTf^d", 1776-1860. ('J'iciniyiond, t)h-/4 n -'ottom, 1917). 



-145- 

11, Pray, Cirl E, Early Education. In The Educational ITl atory 

of V»'igoorn^iri, edited by Charlea L'oKenny. (Chicago, 
DelT"ont Company, 191Ji), 

12, Randall, Kiunuel S, The Corarr.on School oy litem Of the 3t-^.te 

of Vow '^ork. (Troy, .Tohn^on and jjevin, Ibbl), 
13« Raper, Charles Lee, The Church and Private Schools of 

No rt h Ca ro lina . (Greensboro, Janes 3. Stone, 1898.) 

14, Small, ./r'lter Tlerhert. I'Jarly Ivew y.nrjard ichools . (Boston, 

Ginn and Co»';pany, 1914). 

15, Snrdth, Charles Lee, Ki story of 5duoati?r in llorth Carolina . 

(Bureau of i'ducation, Oirciil?ir of Inforjuation, :^o. 2, 
1888). 

16, Steinor, Perrard C, 'Tj story o f >3ducgtiop iv I'gryland . 

(TJnited 3tRte!- Bureau cf Inforiration, Kc. 2, 1894). 

17, Stock^rell, Thoinas B. A History of ru ol i c r3(:uGati3n in 

Rhode Island, 163 6-1076 . (providence, PrcTidence Press 
Company, 1876), 

18, Summer, T^'finry, Sug /^e'jtions Relative to thfc ?ree School 

3y3te-n in . SoutJ-i Car olin a. (Coluv.hip, a. .T. Summer, 
1847 ) . 

19, Tolman, '^S-lli.'rTn Howe, The '^Ti story of Higher ^■^ducation in 

Rhode I gla nd _ (-doctor's Thcaia, Johns Fopkins Tfnivcr- 
sity, 1SQ4). 

20, "^atson, Foster. The Beginn ings of the Tej -.c-hix.;;. o f r odern 

3ul),iecta in . jni-lau d. (^..oiiJon, Sir I anno Pitman tind 
Sons, Ltd. 19C9) 



-146- 

II, Town Hiatories 

1« Caulkins, It'r.'nicea Kanwaring, History of ITorwich, Connecticut, 
^om Ita Posseaainn by the Indiana to the Yenr 1866, 
(Published by the author, 1866). 

2, Davis, Churlen Henry ijtc.nely, TTi r:;tory of Wallingford , 

IferTden, 
Connectioi'.t and Keriden{/ Connecticut, Pub, by the 

the author, 1870.) 

3, Lane, Samuel A. Tlft^'- Jer-.rs and Over o f Ak r or' and '3un?nit 

County . (Alcron, Ohio, 1C92, ) 

4, Ruttmiber, 13. I^. JJijr't or y o f the ?o-.ni of ITeTrburgh (in !^ew 

York State), (ilewburgh, rev^f ^'oDc, K.F. Rutterber a.nd 
Ooi-npany, 185;)}. 

5, ^cherf, J, ?"nn.':nf^, ^^i _ctor;y' of •^t:r ^2"-V'^ ^^'"-.^'^ '" ^^'^ Coun try^ 

(Philadelphia, louic '!. verts eud Corvpany, 1B63), 
III, ^ticles ill Educatiniial Jour.iuai 

1, Barnard, Fenry, Schoolcas They v;t?i-e Sixty Y^.^r^-! aTo, In 

TTenry Barnard 'o .AKorican .Toarnal of "RMucatx -^r- , Vol. 26, 
1876, -pv". 195-196, This is an editorial in which Barnard 
prj.blishe3 a letter froiTj roah ".'fibster, written in 1840, 

2, Farrard, T^enry, Courses of ir.atructio.u in the rri)n?.ry 

Schools of Cfjrraany. In Bar nard's A'^e rjnp n .Tournal of 

Edu cr-^tion, Vol. B, pp. 37i"40?;, ConJi«t« largely of 

f-ro Trt 1^ ^ - - 

extracts ''prip's and ntowc'D reports vr^ tne ^^russian 

Schools, 

3, Pegtaloas/d - rethods of Elener.ts'^v Instructior. In Barnard* a 

.^'"-■■j. '-an Tourrrg of lliAccX j. ov.^, 'rol. 7, 1839, p. 684, 



l47- 

4» Peck, Ellen Brainerd, Early Textbooks in Connecticut, 

In The Conrccticu t I'agaaine , Vol. 4, l(i98, pp. 61-7 2, 

IV, MiscellareouB 

1, IvTcLsuglraiii, Andrew C, A History of the At- er i ca n ITa tion, 
(Chicar^o, D. Appleton r.nd Go'^rnany, 1913), 



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